sebastienros.jint/Jint/Runtime/TypeConverter.cs

using System.Globalization;
using System.Numerics;
using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
using Esprima;
using Esprima.Ast;
using Jint.Extensions;
using Jint.Native;
using Jint.Native.Number;
using Jint.Native.Number.Dtoa;
using Jint.Native.Object;
using Jint.Native.String;
using Jint.Native.Symbol;
using Jint.Pooling;
using Jint.Runtime.Interop;

namespace Jint.Runtime
{
    [Flags]
    public enum Types
    {
        None = 0,
        Undefined = 1,
        Null = 2,
        Boolean = 4,
        String = 8,
        Number = 16,
        Symbol = 64,
        BigInt = 128,
        Object = 256
    }

    [Flags]
    internal enum InternalTypes
    {
        // should not be used, used for empty match
        None = 0,

        Undefined = 1,
        Null = 2,

        // primitive  types range start
        Boolean = 4,
        String = 8,
        Number = 16,
        Integer = 32,
        Symbol = 64,
        BigInt = 128,

        // primitive  types range end
        Object = 256,

        // internal usage
        ObjectEnvironmentRecord = 512,
        RequiresCloning = 1024,
        Module = 2048,

        // the object doesn't override important GetOwnProperty etc which change behavior
        PlainObject = 4096,
        // our native array
        Array = 8192,

        Primitive = Boolean | String | Number | Integer | BigInt | Symbol,
        InternalFlags = ObjectEnvironmentRecord | RequiresCloning | PlainObject | Array | Module
    }

    public static class TypeConverter
    {
        // how many decimals to check when determining if double is actually an int
        private const double DoubleIsIntegerTolerance = double.Epsilon * 100;

        private static readonly string[] intToString = new string[1024];
        private static readonly string[] charToString = new string[256];

        static TypeConverter()
        {
            for (var i = 0; i < intToString.Length; ++i)
            {
                intToString[i] = i.ToString();
            }

            for (var i = 0; i < charToString.Length; ++i)
            {
                var c = (char) i;
                charToString[i] = c.ToString();
            }
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-toprimitive
        /// </summary>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static JsValue ToPrimitive(JsValue input, Types preferredType = Types.None)
        {
            return input is not ObjectInstance oi
                ? input
                : ToPrimitiveObjectInstance(oi, preferredType);
        }

        private static JsValue ToPrimitiveObjectInstance(ObjectInstance oi, Types preferredType)
        {
            var exoticToPrim = oi.GetMethod(GlobalSymbolRegistry.ToPrimitive);
            if (exoticToPrim is not null)
            {
                var hint = preferredType switch
                {
                    Types.String => JsString.StringString,
                    Types.Number => JsString.NumberString,
                    _ => JsString.DefaultString
                };

                var str = exoticToPrim.Call(oi, new JsValue[] { hint });
                if (str.IsPrimitive())
                {
                    return str;
                }

                if (str.IsObject())
                {
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(oi.Engine.Realm, "Cannot convert object to primitive value");
                }
            }

            return OrdinaryToPrimitive(oi, preferredType == Types.None ? Types.Number : preferredType);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-ordinarytoprimitive
        /// </summary>
        internal static JsValue OrdinaryToPrimitive(ObjectInstance input, Types hint = Types.None)
        {
            JsString property1;
            JsString property2;

            if (hint == Types.String)
            {
                property1 = (JsString) "toString";
                property2 = (JsString) "valueOf";
            }
            else if (hint == Types.Number)
            {
                property1 = (JsString) "valueOf";
                property2 = (JsString) "toString";
            }
            else
            {
                ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(input.Engine.Realm);
                return null;
            }

            if (input.Get(property1) is ICallable method1)
            {
                var val = method1.Call(input, Arguments.Empty);
                if (val.IsPrimitive())
                {
                    return val;
                }
            }

            if (input.Get(property2) is ICallable method2)
            {
                var val = method2.Call(input, Arguments.Empty);
                if (val.IsPrimitive())
                {
                    return val;
                }
            }

            ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(input.Engine.Realm);
            return null;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-toboolean
        /// </summary>
        public static bool ToBoolean(JsValue o) => o.ToBoolean();

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tonumeric
        /// </summary>
        public static JsValue ToNumeric(JsValue value)
        {
            if (value.IsNumber() || value.IsBigInt())
            {
                return value;
            }

            var primValue = ToPrimitive(value, Types.Number);
            if (primValue.IsBigInt())
            {
                return primValue;
            }

            return ToNumber(primValue);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tonumber
        /// </summary>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static double ToNumber(JsValue o)
        {
            return o.IsNumber()
                ? ((JsNumber) o)._value
                : ToNumberUnlikely(o);
        }

        private static double ToNumberUnlikely(JsValue o)
        {
            var type = o._type & ~InternalTypes.InternalFlags;

            switch (type)
            {
                case InternalTypes.Undefined:
                    return double.NaN;
                case InternalTypes.Null:
                    return 0;
                case InternalTypes.Boolean:
                    return ((JsBoolean) o)._value ? 1 : 0;
                case InternalTypes.String:
                    return ToNumber(o.ToString());
                case InternalTypes.Symbol:
                case InternalTypes.BigInt:
                    // TODO proper TypeError would require Engine instance and a lot of API changes
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeErrorNoEngine("Cannot convert a " + type + " value to a number");
                    return 0;
                default:
                    return ToNumber(ToPrimitive(o, Types.Number));
            }
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static JsNumber ToJsNumber(JsValue o)
        {
            return o.IsNumber() ? (JsNumber) o : ToJsNumberUnlikely(o);
        }

        private static JsNumber ToJsNumberUnlikely(JsValue o)
        {
            var type = o._type & ~InternalTypes.InternalFlags;

            switch (type)
            {
                case InternalTypes.Undefined:
                    return JsNumber.DoubleNaN;
                case InternalTypes.Null:
                    return JsNumber.PositiveZero;
                case InternalTypes.Boolean:
                    return ((JsBoolean) o)._value ? JsNumber.PositiveOne : JsNumber.PositiveZero;
                case InternalTypes.String:
                    return new JsNumber(ToNumber(o.ToString()));
                case InternalTypes.Symbol:
                case InternalTypes.BigInt:
                    // TODO proper TypeError would require Engine instance and a lot of API changes
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeErrorNoEngine("Cannot convert a " + type + " value to a number");
                    return JsNumber.PositiveZero;
                default:
                    return new JsNumber(ToNumber(ToPrimitive(o, Types.Number)));
            }
        }

        private static double ToNumber(string input)
        {
            // eager checks to save time and trimming
            if (string.IsNullOrEmpty(input))
            {
                return 0;
            }

            var first = input[0];
            if (input.Length == 1 && first >= '0' && first <= '9')
            {
                // simple constant number
                return first - '0';
            }

            var s = StringPrototype.TrimEx(input);

            if (s.Length == 0)
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (s.Length == 8 || s.Length == 9)
            {
                if ("+Infinity" == s || "Infinity" == s)
                {
                    return double.PositiveInfinity;
                }

                if ("-Infinity" == s)
                {
                    return double.NegativeInfinity;
                }
            }

            // todo: use a common implementation with JavascriptParser
            try
            {
                if (s.Length > 2 && s[0] == '0' && char.IsLetter(s[1]))
                {
                    var fromBase = 0;
                    if (s[1] == 'x' || s[1] == 'X')
                    {
                        fromBase = 16;
                    }

                    if (s[1] == 'o' || s[1] == 'O')
                    {
                        fromBase = 8;
                    }

                    if (s[1] == 'b' || s[1] == 'B')
                    {
                        fromBase = 2;
                    }

                    if (fromBase > 0)
                    {
                        return Convert.ToInt32(s.Substring(2), fromBase);
                    }
                }

                var start = s[0];
                if (start != '+' && start != '-' && start != '.' && !char.IsDigit(start))
                {
                    return double.NaN;
                }

                var n = double.Parse(s,
                    NumberStyles.AllowDecimalPoint | NumberStyles.AllowLeadingSign |
                    NumberStyles.AllowLeadingWhite | NumberStyles.AllowTrailingWhite |
                    NumberStyles.AllowExponent, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
                if (s.StartsWith("-") && n == 0)
                {
                    return -0.0;
                }

                return n;
            }
            catch (OverflowException)
            {
                return s.StartsWith("-") ? double.NegativeInfinity : double.PositiveInfinity;
            }
            catch
            {
                return double.NaN;
            }
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tolength
        /// </summary>
        public static ulong ToLength(JsValue o)
        {
            var len = ToInteger(o);
            if (len <= 0)
            {
                return 0;
            }

            return (ulong) Math.Min(len, NumberConstructor.MaxSafeInteger);
        }


        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tointegerorinfinity
        /// </summary>
        public static double ToIntegerOrInfinity(JsValue argument)
        {
            var number = ToNumber(argument);
            if (double.IsNaN(number) || number == 0)
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (double.IsInfinity(number))
            {
                return number;
            }

            var integer = (long) Math.Floor(Math.Abs(number));
            if (number < 0)
            {
                integer *= -1;
            }

            return integer;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tointeger
        /// </summary>
        public static double ToInteger(JsValue o)
        {
            return ToInteger(ToNumber(o));
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tointeger
        /// </summary>
        internal static double ToInteger(double number)
        {
            if (double.IsNaN(number))
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (number == 0 || double.IsInfinity(number))
            {
                return number;
            }

            if (number is >= long.MinValue and <= long.MaxValue)
            {
                return (long) number;
            }

            var integer = Math.Floor(Math.Abs(number));
            if (number < 0)
            {
                integer *= -1;
            }

            return integer;
        }

        internal static int DoubleToInt32Slow(double o)
        {
            // Computes the integral value of the number mod 2^32.

            var doubleBits = BitConverter.DoubleToInt64Bits(o);
            var sign = (int) (doubleBits >> 63); // 0 if positive, -1 if negative
            var exponent = (int) ((doubleBits >> 52) & 0x7FF) - 1023;

            if ((uint) exponent >= 84)
            {
                // Anything with an exponent that is negative or >= 84 will convert to zero.
                // This includes infinities and NaNs, which have exponent = 1024
                // The 84 comes from 52 (bits in double mantissa) + 32 (bits in integer)
                return 0;
            }

            var mantissa = (doubleBits & 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFL) | 0x10000000000000L;
            var int32Value = exponent >= 52 ? (int) (mantissa << (exponent - 52)) : (int) (mantissa >> (52 - exponent));

            return (int32Value + sign) ^ sign;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// http://www.ecma-international.org/ecma-262/5.1/#sec-9.5
        /// </summary>
        public static int ToInt32(JsValue o)
        {
            if (o._type == InternalTypes.Integer)
            {
                return o.AsInteger();
            }

            var doubleVal = ToNumber(o);
            if (doubleVal >= -(double) int.MinValue && doubleVal <= int.MaxValue)
            {
                // Double-to-int cast is correct in this range
                return (int) doubleVal;
            }

            return DoubleToInt32Slow(doubleVal);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-touint32
        /// </summary>
        public static uint ToUint32(JsValue o)
        {
            if (o._type == InternalTypes.Integer)
            {
                return (uint) o.AsInteger();
            }

            var doubleVal = ToNumber(o);
            if (doubleVal is >= 0.0 and <= uint.MaxValue)
            {
                // Double-to-uint cast is correct in this range
                return (uint) doubleVal;
            }

            return (uint) DoubleToInt32Slow(doubleVal);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-touint16
        /// </summary>
        public static ushort ToUint16(JsValue o)
        {
            if (o._type == InternalTypes.Integer)
            {
                var integer = o.AsInteger();
                if (integer is >= 0 and <= ushort.MaxValue)
                {
                    return (ushort) integer;
                }
            }

            var number = ToNumber(o);
            if (double.IsNaN(number) || number == 0 || double.IsInfinity(number))
            {
                return 0;
            }

            var intValue = Math.Floor(Math.Abs(number));
            if (number < 0)
            {
                intValue *= -1;
            }

            var int16Bit = intValue % 65_536; // 2^16
            return (ushort) int16Bit;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-toint16
        /// </summary>
        internal static double ToInt16(JsValue o)
        {
            return o._type == InternalTypes.Integer
                ? (short) o.AsInteger()
                : (short) (long) ToNumber(o);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-toint8
        /// </summary>
        internal static double ToInt8(JsValue o)
        {
            return o._type == InternalTypes.Integer
                ? (sbyte) o.AsInteger()
                : (sbyte) (long) ToNumber(o);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-touint8
        /// </summary>
        internal static double ToUint8(JsValue o)
        {
            return o._type == InternalTypes.Integer
                ? (byte) o.AsInteger()
                : (byte) (long) ToNumber(o);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-touint8clamp
        /// </summary>
        internal static byte ToUint8Clamp(JsValue o)
        {
            if (o._type == InternalTypes.Integer)
            {
                var intValue = o.AsInteger();
                if (intValue is > -1 and < 256)
                {
                    return (byte) intValue;
                }
            }

            return ToUint8ClampUnlikely(o);
        }

        private static byte ToUint8ClampUnlikely(JsValue o)
        {
            var number = ToNumber(o);
            if (double.IsNaN(number))
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (number <= 0)
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (number >= 255)
            {
                return 255;
            }

            var f = Math.Floor(number);
            if (f + 0.5 < number)
            {
                return (byte) (f + 1);
            }

            if (number < f + 0.5)
            {
                return (byte) f;
            }

            if (f % 2 != 0)
            {
                return (byte) (f + 1);
            }

            return (byte) f;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tobigint
        /// </summary>
        public static BigInteger ToBigInt(JsValue value)
        {
            return value is JsBigInt bigInt
                ? bigInt._value
                : ToBigIntUnlikely(value);
        }

        private static BigInteger ToBigIntUnlikely(JsValue value)
        {
            var prim = ToPrimitive(value, Types.Number);
            switch (prim.Type)
            {
                case Types.BigInt:
                    return ((JsBigInt) prim)._value;
                case Types.Boolean:
                    return ((JsBoolean) prim)._value ? BigInteger.One : BigInteger.Zero;
                case Types.String:
                    return StringToBigInt(prim.ToString());
                default:
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeErrorNoEngine("Cannot convert a " + prim.Type + " to a BigInt");
                    return BigInteger.One;
            }
        }

        public static JsBigInt ToJsBigInt(JsValue value)
        {
            return value as JsBigInt ?? ToJsBigIntUnlikely(value);
        }

        private static JsBigInt ToJsBigIntUnlikely(JsValue value)
        {
            var prim = ToPrimitive(value, Types.Number);
            switch (prim.Type)
            {
                case Types.BigInt:
                    return (JsBigInt) prim;
                case Types.Boolean:
                    return ((JsBoolean) prim)._value ? JsBigInt.One : JsBigInt.Zero;
                case Types.String:
                    return new JsBigInt(StringToBigInt(prim.ToString()));
                default:
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeErrorNoEngine("Cannot convert a " + prim.Type + " to a BigInt");
                    return JsBigInt.One;
            }
        }

        internal static BigInteger StringToBigInt(string str)
        {
            if (!TryStringToBigInt(str, out var result))
            {
                throw new ParserException(" Cannot convert " + str + " to a BigInt");
            }

            return result;
        }

        internal static bool TryStringToBigInt(string str, out BigInteger result)
        {
            if (string.IsNullOrWhiteSpace(str))
            {
                result = BigInteger.Zero;
                return true;
            }

            str = str.Trim();

            for (var i = 0; i < str.Length; i++)
            {
                var c = str[i];
                if (!char.IsDigit(c))
                {
                    if (i == 0 && (c == '-' || Character.IsDecimalDigit(c)))
                    {
                        // ok
                        continue;
                    }

                    if (i != 1 && Character.IsHexDigit(c))
                    {
                        // ok
                        continue;
                    }

                    if (i == 1 && (Character.IsDecimalDigit(c) || c is 'x' or 'X' or 'b' or 'B' or 'o' or 'O'))
                    {
                        // allowed, can be probably parsed
                        continue;
                    }

                    result = default;
                    return false;
                }
            }

            // check if we can get by using plain parsing
            if (BigInteger.TryParse(str, NumberStyles.Integer, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture, out result))
            {
                return true;
            }

            if (str.Length > 2)
            {
                if (str.StartsWith("0x", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase))
                {
                    // we get better precision if we don't hit floating point parsing that is performed by Esprima
#if NETSTANDARD2_1_OR_GREATER
                    var source = str.AsSpan(2);
#else
                    var source = str.Substring(2);
#endif

                    var c = source[0];
                    if (c > 7 && Character.IsHexDigit(c))
                    {
                        // ensure we get positive number
                        source = "0" + source.ToString();
                    }

                    if (BigInteger.TryParse(source, NumberStyles.HexNumber, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture, out result))
                    {
                        return true;
                    }
                }
                else if (str.StartsWith("0o", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) && Character.IsOctalDigit(str[2]))
                {
                    // try parse large octal
                    var bigInteger = new BigInteger();
                    for (var i = 2; i < str.Length; i++)
                    {
                        var c = str[i];
                        if (!Character.IsHexDigit(c))
                        {
                            return false;
                        }

                        bigInteger = bigInteger * 8 + c - '0';
                    }

                    result = bigInteger;
                    return true;
                }
                else if (str.StartsWith("0b", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) && Character.IsDecimalDigit(str[2]))
                {
                    // try parse large binary
                    var bigInteger = new BigInteger();
                    for (var i = 2; i < str.Length; i++)
                    {
                        var c = str[i];

                        if (c != '0' && c != '1')
                        {
                            // not good
                            return false;
                        }

                        bigInteger <<= 1;
                        bigInteger += c == '1' ? 1 : 0;
                    }

                    result = bigInteger;
                    return true;
                }
            }

            return false;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tobigint64
        /// </summary>
        internal static long ToBigInt64(BigInteger value)
        {
            var int64bit = BigIntegerModulo(value, BigInteger.Pow(2, 64));
            if (int64bit >= BigInteger.Pow(2, 63))
            {
                return (long) (int64bit - BigInteger.Pow(2, 64));
            }

            return (long) int64bit;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tobiguint64
        /// </summary>
        internal static ulong ToBigUint64(BigInteger value)
        {
            return (ulong) BigIntegerModulo(value, BigInteger.Pow(2, 64));
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Implements the JS spec modulo operation as expected.
        /// </summary>
        internal static BigInteger BigIntegerModulo(BigInteger a, BigInteger n)
        {
            return (a %= n) < 0 && n > 0 || a > 0 && n < 0 ? a + n : a;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-canonicalnumericindexstring
        /// </summary>
        internal static double? CanonicalNumericIndexString(JsValue value)
        {
            if (value is JsNumber jsNumber)
            {
                return jsNumber._value;
            }

            if (value is JsString jsString)
            {
                if (jsString.ToString() == "-0")
                {
                    return JsNumber.NegativeZero._value;
                }

                var n = ToNumber(value);
                if (!JsValue.SameValue(ToString(n), value))
                {
                    return null;
                }

                return n;
            }

            return null;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-toindex
        /// </summary>
        public static uint ToIndex(Realm realm, JsValue value)
        {
            if (value.IsUndefined())
            {
                return 0;
            }

            var integerIndex = ToIntegerOrInfinity(value);
            if (integerIndex < 0)
            {
                ExceptionHelper.ThrowRangeError(realm);
            }

            var index = ToLength(integerIndex);
            if (integerIndex != index)
            {
                ExceptionHelper.ThrowRangeError(realm, "Invalid index");
            }

            return (uint) Math.Min(uint.MaxValue, index);
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(long i)
        {
            return i >= 0 && i < intToString.Length
                ? intToString[i]
                : i.ToString();
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(int i)
        {
            return i >= 0 && i < intToString.Length
                ? intToString[i]
                : i.ToString();
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(uint i)
        {
            return i < (uint) intToString.Length
                ? intToString[i]
                : i.ToString();
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(char c)
        {
            return c >= 0 && c < charToString.Length
                ? charToString[c]
                : c.ToString();
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(ulong i)
        {
            return i >= 0 && i < (ulong) intToString.Length
                ? intToString[i]
                : i.ToString();
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(double d)
        {
            if (d > long.MinValue && d < long.MaxValue && Math.Abs(d % 1) <= DoubleIsIntegerTolerance)
            {
                // we are dealing with integer that can be cached
                return ToString((long) d);
            }

            using var stringBuilder = StringBuilderPool.Rent();
            // we can create smaller array as we know the format to be short
            return NumberPrototype.NumberToString(d, new DtoaBuilder(17), stringBuilder.Builder);
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static string ToString(BigInteger bigInteger)
        {
            return bigInteger.ToString();
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// http://www.ecma-international.org/ecma-262/6.0/#sec-topropertykey
        /// </summary>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static JsValue ToPropertyKey(JsValue o)
        {
            const InternalTypes stringOrSymbol = InternalTypes.String | InternalTypes.Symbol;
            return (o._type & stringOrSymbol) != 0
                ? o
                : ToPropertyKeyNonString(o);
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.NoInlining)]
        private static JsValue ToPropertyKeyNonString(JsValue o)
        {
            const InternalTypes stringOrSymbol = InternalTypes.String | InternalTypes.Symbol;
            var primitive = ToPrimitive(o, Types.String);
            return (primitive._type & stringOrSymbol) != 0
                ? primitive
                : ToStringNonString(primitive);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-tostring
        /// </summary>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static string ToString(JsValue o)
        {
            return o.IsString() ? o.ToString() : ToStringNonString(o);
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static JsString ToJsString(JsValue o)
        {
            if (o is JsString s)
            {
                return s;
            }

            return JsString.Create(ToStringNonString(o));
        }

        private static string ToStringNonString(JsValue o)
        {
            var type = o._type & ~InternalTypes.InternalFlags;
            switch (type)
            {
                case InternalTypes.Boolean:
                    return ((JsBoolean) o)._value ? "true" : "false";
                case InternalTypes.Integer:
                    return ToString((int) ((JsNumber) o)._value);
                case InternalTypes.Number:
                    return ToString(((JsNumber) o)._value);
                case InternalTypes.BigInt:
                    return ToString(((JsBigInt) o)._value);
                case InternalTypes.Symbol:
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeErrorNoEngine("Cannot convert a Symbol value to a string");
                    return null;
                case InternalTypes.Undefined:
                    return "undefined";
                case InternalTypes.Null:
                    return "null";
                case InternalTypes.Object when o is IObjectWrapper p:
                    return p.Target?.ToString()!;
                default:
                    return ToString(ToPrimitive(o, Types.String));
            }
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        public static ObjectInstance ToObject(Realm realm, JsValue value)
        {
            if (value is ObjectInstance oi)
            {
                return oi;
            }

            return ToObjectNonObject(realm, value);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-isintegralnumber
        /// </summary>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
        internal static bool IsIntegralNumber(double value)
        {
            return !double.IsNaN(value) && !double.IsInfinity(value) && value % 1 == 0;
        }

        private static ObjectInstance ToObjectNonObject(Realm realm, JsValue value)
        {
            var type = value._type & ~InternalTypes.InternalFlags;
            switch (type)
            {
                case InternalTypes.Boolean:
                    return realm.Intrinsics.Boolean.Construct((JsBoolean) value);
                case InternalTypes.Number:
                case InternalTypes.Integer:
                    return realm.Intrinsics.Number.Construct((JsNumber) value);
                case InternalTypes.BigInt:
                    return realm.Intrinsics.BigInt.Construct((JsBigInt) value);
                case InternalTypes.String:
                    return realm.Intrinsics.String.Construct(value.ToString());
                case InternalTypes.Symbol:
                    return realm.Intrinsics.Symbol.Construct((JsSymbol) value);
                case InternalTypes.Null:
                case InternalTypes.Undefined:
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(realm, "Cannot convert undefined or null to object");
                    return null;
                default:
                    ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(realm, "Cannot convert given item to object");
                    return null;
            }
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.NoInlining)]
        internal static void CheckObjectCoercible(
            Engine engine,
            JsValue o,
            Node sourceNode,
            string referenceName)
        {
            if (!engine._referenceResolver.CheckCoercible(o))
            {
                ThrowMemberNullOrUndefinedError(engine, o, sourceNode, referenceName);
            }
        }

        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.NoInlining)]
        private static void ThrowMemberNullOrUndefinedError(
            Engine engine,
            JsValue o,
            Node sourceNode,
            string referencedName)
        {
            referencedName ??= "unknown";
            var message = $"Cannot read property '{referencedName}' of {o}";
            throw new JavaScriptException(engine.Realm.Intrinsics.TypeError, message)
                .SetJavaScriptCallstack(engine, sourceNode.Location, overwriteExisting: true);
        }

        public static void CheckObjectCoercible(Engine engine, JsValue o)
        {
            if (o._type < InternalTypes.Boolean)
            {
                ExceptionHelper.ThrowTypeError(engine.Realm, "Cannot call method on " + o);
            }
        }

        internal readonly record struct MethodMatch(MethodDescriptor Method, JsValue[] Arguments, int Score = 0) : IComparable<MethodMatch>
        {
            public int CompareTo(MethodMatch other) => Score.CompareTo(other.Score);
        }

        internal static IEnumerable<MethodMatch> FindBestMatch(
            Engine engine,
            MethodDescriptor[] methods,
            Func<MethodDescriptor, JsValue[]> argumentProvider)
        {
            List<MethodMatch>? matchingByParameterCount = null;
            foreach (var method in methods)
            {
                var parameterInfos = method.Parameters;
                var arguments = argumentProvider(method);
                if (arguments.Length <= parameterInfos.Length
                    && arguments.Length >= parameterInfos.Length - method.ParameterDefaultValuesCount)
                {
                    var score = CalculateMethodScore(engine, method, arguments);
                    if (score == 0)
                    {
                        // perfect match
                        yield return new MethodMatch(method, arguments);
                        yield break;
                    }

                    if (score < 0)
                    {
                        // discard
                        continue;
                    }

                    matchingByParameterCount ??= new List<MethodMatch>();
                    matchingByParameterCount.Add(new MethodMatch(method, arguments, score));
                }
            }

            if (matchingByParameterCount == null)
            {
                yield break;
            }

            if (matchingByParameterCount.Count > 1)
            {
                matchingByParameterCount.Sort();
            }

            foreach (var match in matchingByParameterCount)
            {
                yield return match;
            }
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Method's match score tells how far away it's from ideal candidate. 0 = ideal, bigger the the number,
        /// the farther away the candidate is from ideal match. Negative signals impossible match.
        /// </summary>
        private static int CalculateMethodScore(Engine engine, MethodDescriptor method, JsValue[] arguments)
        {
            if (method.Parameters.Length == 0 && arguments.Length == 0)
            {
                // perfect
                return 0;
            }

            var score = 0;
            for (var i = 0; i < arguments.Length; i++)
            {
                var jsValue = arguments[i];
                var paramType = method.Parameters[i].ParameterType;

                var parameterScore = CalculateMethodParameterScore(engine, jsValue, paramType);
                if (parameterScore < 0)
                {
                    return parameterScore;
                }

                score += parameterScore;
            }

            return score;
        }

        internal readonly record struct AssignableResult(int Score, Type MatchingGivenType)
        {
            public bool IsAssignable => Score >= 0;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// resources:
        /// https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/framework/reflection-and-codedom/how-to-examine-and-instantiate-generic-types-with-reflection
        /// https://stackoverflow.com/questions/74616/how-to-detect-if-type-is-another-generic-type/1075059#1075059
        /// https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/api/system.type.isconstructedgenerictype?view=net-6.0
        /// This can be improved upon - specifically as mentioned in the above MS document:
        /// GetGenericParameterConstraints()
        /// and array handling - i.e.
        /// GetElementType()
        /// </summary>
        internal static AssignableResult IsAssignableToGenericType(Type givenType, Type genericType)
        {
            if (givenType is null)
            {
                return new AssignableResult(-1, typeof(void));
            }

            if (!genericType.IsConstructedGenericType)
            {
                // as mentioned here:
                // https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/api/system.type.isconstructedgenerictype?view=net-6.0
                // this effectively means this generic type is open (i.e. not closed) - so any type is "possible" - without looking at the code in the method we don't know
                // whether any operations are being applied that "don't work"
                return new AssignableResult(2, givenType);
            }

            var interfaceTypes = givenType.GetInterfaces();
            foreach (var it in interfaceTypes)
            {
                if (it.IsGenericType)
                {
                    var givenTypeGenericDef = it.GetGenericTypeDefinition();
                    if (givenTypeGenericDef == genericType)
                    {
                        return new AssignableResult(0, it);
                    }
                    else if (genericType.IsGenericType && (givenTypeGenericDef == genericType.GetGenericTypeDefinition()))
                    {
                        return new AssignableResult(0, it);
                    }
                    // TPC: we could also add a loop to recurse and iterate thru the iterfaces of generic type - because of covariance/contravariance
                }
            }

            if (givenType.IsGenericType && givenType.GetGenericTypeDefinition() == genericType)
            {
                return new AssignableResult(0, givenType);
            }

            Type baseType = givenType.BaseType;
            if (baseType == null)
            {
                return new AssignableResult(-1, givenType);
            }

            return IsAssignableToGenericType(baseType, genericType);
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Determines how well parameter type matches target method's type.
        /// </summary>
        private static int CalculateMethodParameterScore(
            Engine engine,
            JsValue jsValue,
            Type paramType)
        {
            var objectValue = jsValue.ToObject();
            var objectValueType = objectValue?.GetType();

            if (objectValueType == paramType)
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (objectValue is null)
            {
                if (!TypeIsNullable(paramType))
                {
                    // this is bad
                    return -1;
                }

                return 0;
            }

            if (paramType == typeof(JsValue))
            {
                // JsValue is convertible to. But it is still not a perfect match
                return 1;
            }

            if (paramType == typeof(object))
            {
                // a catch-all, prefer others over it
                return 5;
            }

            if (paramType == typeof(int) && jsValue.IsInteger())
            {
                return 0;
            }

            if (paramType == typeof(float) && objectValueType == typeof(double))
            {
                return jsValue.IsInteger() ? 1 : 2;
            }

            if (paramType.IsEnum &&
                jsValue is JsNumber jsNumber
                && jsNumber.IsInteger()
                && paramType.GetEnumUnderlyingType() == typeof(int)
                && Enum.IsDefined(paramType, jsNumber.AsInteger()))
            {
                // we can do conversion from int value to enum
                return 0;
            }

            if (paramType.IsAssignableFrom(objectValueType))
            {
                // is-a-relation
                return 1;
            }

            if (jsValue.IsArray() && paramType.IsArray)
            {
                // we have potential, TODO if we'd know JS array's internal type we could have exact match
                return 2;
            }

            // not sure the best point to start generic type tests
            if (paramType.IsGenericParameter)
            {
                var genericTypeAssignmentScore = IsAssignableToGenericType(objectValueType!, paramType);
                if (genericTypeAssignmentScore.Score != -1)
                {
                    return genericTypeAssignmentScore.Score;
                }
            }

            if (CanChangeType(objectValue, paramType))
            {
                // forcing conversion isn't ideal, but works, especially for int -> double for example
                return 3;
            }

            foreach (var m in objectValueType!.GetOperatorOverloadMethods())
            {
                if (paramType.IsAssignableFrom(m.ReturnType) && m.Name is "op_Implicit" or "op_Explicit")
                {
                    // implicit/explicit operator conversion is OK, but not ideal
                    return 3;
                }
            }

            if (ReflectionExtensions.TryConvertViaTypeCoercion(paramType, engine.Options.Interop.ValueCoercion, jsValue, out _))
            {
                // gray JS zone where we start to do odd things
                return 10;
            }

            // will rarely succeed
            return 100;
        }

        private static bool CanChangeType(object value, Type targetType)
        {
            if (value is null && !targetType.IsValueType)
            {
                return true;
            }

            if (value is not IConvertible)
            {
                return false;
            }

            try
            {
                Convert.ChangeType(value, targetType, CultureInfo.InvariantCulture);
                return true;
            }
            catch
            {
                // nope
                return false;
            }
        }

        internal static bool TypeIsNullable(Type type)
        {
            return !type.IsValueType || Nullable.GetUnderlyingType(type) != null;
        }
    }
}