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- <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2 Final//EN">
- <html>
- <head>
- <title>Lua 5.1 Reference Manual</title>
- <link rel="stylesheet" href="../Medias/lua.css">
- <link rel="stylesheet" href="../Medias/manual.css">
- </head>
- <body>
- <hr>
- <h1>
- <a href="http://www.lua.org"><img src="../Medias/logo.gif" alt="" border="0"></a>
- Lua 5.1 Reference Manual
- </h1>
- by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, Waldemar Celes
- <p>
- <small>
- <a href="http://www.lua.org/copyright.html">Copyright</a>
- © 2006 Lua.org, PUC-Rio. All rights reserved.
- </small>
- <hr>
- <!-- ====================================================================== -->
- <p>
- <h1>1 - <a name="1">Introduction</a></h1>
- <p>
- Lua is an extension programming language designed to support
- general procedural programming with data description
- facilities.
- It also offers good support for object-oriented programming,
- functional programming, and data-driven programming.
- Lua is intended to be used as a powerful, light-weight
- scripting language for any program that needs one.
- Lua is implemented as a library, written in <em>clean</em> C
- (that is, in the common subset of ANSI C and C++).
- <p>
- Being an extension language, Lua has no notion of a "main" program:
- it only works <em>embedded</em> in a host client,
- called the <em>embedding program</em> or simply the <em>host</em>.
- This host program can invoke functions to execute a piece of Lua code,
- can write and read Lua variables,
- and can register C functions to be called by Lua code.
- Through the use of C functions, Lua can be augmented to cope with
- a wide range of different domains,
- thus creating customized programming languages sharing a syntactical framework.
- The Lua distribution includes a sample host program called <code>lua</code>,
- which uses the Lua library to offer a complete, stand-alone Lua interpreter.
- <p>
- Lua is free software,
- and is provided as usual with no guarantees,
- as stated in its license.
- The implementation described in this manual is available
- at Lua's official web site, <code>www.lua.org</code>.
- <p>
- Like any other reference manual,
- this document is dry in places.
- For a discussion of the decisions behind the design of Lua,
- see the technical papers available at Lua's web site.
- For a detailed introduction to programming in Lua,
- see Roberto's book, <em>Programming in Lua (Second Edition)</em>.
- <h1>2 - <a name="2">The Language</a></h1>
- <p>
- This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Lua.
- In other words,
- this section describes
- which tokens are valid,
- how they can be combined,
- and what their combinations mean.
- <p>
- The language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation,
- in which
- {<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and
- [<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>.
- Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal,
- keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>,
- and other terminal symbols are shown like `<b>=</b>´.
- The complete syntax of Lua can be found at the end of this manual.
- <h2>2.1 - <a name="2.1">Lexical Conventions</a></h2>
- <p>
- <em>Names</em>
- (also called <em>identifiers</em>)
- in Lua can be any string of letters,
- digits, and underscores,
- not beginning with a digit.
- This coincides with the definition of names in most languages.
- (The definition of letter depends on the current locale:
- any character considered alphabetic by the current locale
- can be used in an identifier.)
- Identifiers are used to name variables and table fields.
- <p>
- The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved
- and cannot be used as names:
- <pre>
- and break do else elseif
- end false for function if
- in local nil not or
- repeat return then true until while
- </pre>
- <p>
- Lua is a case-sensitive language:
- <code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code>
- are two different, valid names.
- As a convention, names starting with an underscore followed by
- uppercase letters (such as <code>_VERSION</code>)
- are reserved for internal global variables used by Lua.
- <p>
- The following strings denote other tokens:
- <pre>
- + - * / % ^ #
- == ~= <= >= < > =
- ( ) { } [ ]
- ; : , . .. ...
- </pre>
- <p>
- <em>Literal strings</em>
- can be delimited by matching single or double quotes,
- and can contain the following C-like escape sequences:
- '<code>\a</code>' (bell),
- '<code>\b</code>' (backspace),
- '<code>\f</code>' (form feed),
- '<code>\n</code>' (newline),
- '<code>\r</code>' (carriage return),
- '<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab),
- '<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab),
- '<code>\\</code>' (backslash),
- '<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]),
- and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]).
- Moreover, a backslash followed by a real newline
- results in a newline in the string.
- A character in a string may also be specified by its numerical value
- using the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>,
- where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits.
- (Note that if a numerical escape is to be followed by a digit,
- it must be expressed using exactly three digits.)
- Strings in Lua may contain any 8-bit value, including embedded zeros,
- which can be specified as '<code>\0</code>'.
- <p>
- To put a double (single) quote, a newline, a backslash,
- or an embedded zero
- inside a literal string enclosed by double (single) quotes
- you must use an escape sequence.
- Any other character may be directly inserted into the literal.
- (Some control characters may cause problems for the file system,
- but Lua has no problem with them.)
- <p>
- Literal strings can also be defined using a long format
- enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>.
- We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening
- square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another
- opening square bracket.
- So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>,
- an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>,
- and so on.
- A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly;
- for instance, a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>.
- A long string starts with an opening long bracket of any level and
- ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level.
- Literals in this bracketed form may run for several lines,
- do not interpret any escape sequences,
- and ignore long brackets of any other level.
- They may contain anything except a closing bracket of the proper level.
- <p>
- For convenience,
- when the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline,
- the newline is not included in the string.
- As an example, in a system using ASCII
- (in which '<code>a</code>' is coded as 97,
- newline is coded as 10, and '<code>1</code>' is coded as 49),
- the five literals below denote the same string:
- <pre>
- a = 'alo\n123"'
- a = "alo\n123\""
- a = '\97lo\10\04923"'
- a = [[alo
- 123"]]
- a = [==[
- alo
- 123"]==]
- </pre>
- <p>
- A <em>numerical constant</em> may be written with an optional decimal part
- and an optional decimal exponent.
- Lua also accepts integer hexadecimal constants,
- by prefixing them with <code>0x</code>.
- Examples of valid numerical constants are
- <pre>
- 3 3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 0xff 0x56
- </pre>
- <p>
- A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>)
- anywhere outside a string.
- If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket,
- the comment is a <em>short comment</em>,
- which runs until the end of the line.
- Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>,
- which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket.
- Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily.
- <h2>2.2 - <a name="2.2">Values and Types</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua is a <em>dynamically typed language</em>.
- This means that
- variables do not have types; only values do.
- There are no type definitions in the language.
- All values carry their own type.
- <p>
- All values in Lua are <em>first-class values</em>.
- This means that all values can be stored in variables,
- passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results.
- <p>
- There are eight basic types in Lua:
- <em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>,
- <em>string</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>userdata</em>,
- <em>thread</em>, and <em>table</em>.
- <em>Nil</em> is the type of the value <b>nil</b>,
- whose main property is to be different from any other value;
- it usually represents the absence of a useful value.
- <em>Boolean</em> is the type of the values <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>.
- Both <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> make a condition false;
- any other value makes it true.
- <em>Number</em> represents real (double-precision floating-point) numbers.
- (It is easy to build Lua interpreters that use other
- internal representations for numbers,
- such as single-precision float or long integers;
- see file <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- <em>String</em> represents arrays of characters.
- Lua is 8-bit clean:
- strings may contain any 8-bit character,
- including embedded zeros ('<code>\0</code>') (see <a href="#2.1">§2.1</a>).
- <p>
- Lua can call (and manipulate) functions written in Lua and
- functions written in C
- (see <a href="#2.5.8">§2.5.8</a>).
- <p>
- The type <em>userdata</em> is provided to allow arbitrary C data to
- be stored in Lua variables.
- This type corresponds to a block of raw memory
- and has no pre-defined operations in Lua,
- except assignment and identity test.
- However, by using <em>metatables</em>,
- the programmer can define operations for userdata values
- (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- Userdata values cannot be created or modified in Lua,
- only through the C API.
- This guarantees the integrity of data owned by the host program.
- <p>
- The type <em>thread</em> represents independent threads of execution
- and it is used to implement coroutines (see <a href="#2.11">§2.11</a>).
- Do not confuse Lua threads with operating-system threads.
- Lua supports coroutines on all systems,
- even those that do not support threads.
- <p>
- The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays,
- that is, arrays that can be indexed not only with numbers,
- but with any value (except <b>nil</b>).
- Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>;
- that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>).
- Tables are the sole data structuring mechanism in Lua;
- they may be used to represent ordinary arrays,
- symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc.
- To represent records, Lua uses the field name as an index.
- The language supports this representation by
- providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>.
- There are several convenient ways to create tables in Lua
- (see <a href="#2.5.7">§2.5.7</a>).
- <p>
- Like indices,
- the value of a table field can be of any type (except <b>nil</b>).
- In particular,
- because functions are first-class values,
- table fields may contain functions.
- Thus tables may also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#2.5.9">§2.5.9</a>).
- <p>
- Tables, functions, threads, and (full) userdata values are <em>objects</em>:
- variables do not actually <em>contain</em> these values,
- only <em>references</em> to them.
- Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns
- always manipulate references to such values;
- these operations do not imply any kind of copy.
- <p>
- The library function <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> returns a string describing the type
- of a given value.
- <h3>2.2.1 - <a name="2.2.1">Coercion</a></h3>
- <p>
- Lua provides automatic conversion between
- string and number values at run time.
- Any arithmetic operation applied to a string tries to convert
- this string to a number, following the usual conversion rules.
- Conversely, whenever a number is used where a string is expected,
- the number is converted to a string, in a reasonable format.
- For complete control over how numbers are converted to strings,
- use the <code>format</code> function from the string library
- (see <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>).
- <h2>2.3 - <a name="2.3">Variables</a></h2>
- <p>
- Variables are places that store values.
- There are three kinds of variables in Lua:
- global variables, local variables, and table fields.
- <p>
- A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable
- (or a function's formal parameter,
- which is a particular kind of local variable):
- <pre>
- var ::= Name
- </pre><p>
- Name denotes identifiers, as defined in <a href="#2.1">§2.1</a>.
- <p>
- Any variable is assumed to be global unless explicitly declared
- as a local (see <a href="#2.4.7">§2.4.7</a>).
- Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>:
- local variables can be freely accessed by functions
- defined inside their scope (see <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a>).
- <p>
- Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>.
- <p>
- Square brackets are used to index a table:
- <pre>
- var ::= prefixexp `<b>[</b>´ exp `<b>]</b>´
- </pre><p>
- The meaning of accesses to global variables
- and table fields can be changed via metatables.
- An access to an indexed variable <code>t[i]</code> is equivalent to
- a call <code>gettable_event(t,i)</code>.
- (See <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a> for a complete description of the
- <code>gettable_event</code> function.
- This function is not defined or callable in Lua.
- We use it here only for explanatory purposes.)
- <p>
- The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for
- <code>var["Name"]</code>:
- <pre>
- var ::= prefixexp `<b>.</b>´ Name
- </pre>
- <p>
- All global variables live as fields in ordinary Lua tables,
- called <em>environment tables</em> or simply
- <em>environments</em> (see <a href="#2.9">§2.9</a>).
- Each function has its own reference to an environment,
- so that all global variables in this function
- will refer to this environment table.
- When a function is created,
- it inherits the environment from the function that created it.
- To get the environment table of a Lua function,
- you call <a href="#pdf-getfenv"><code>getfenv</code></a>.
- To replace it,
- you call <a href="#pdf-setfenv"><code>setfenv</code></a>.
- (You can only manipulate the environment of C functions
- through the debug library; (see <a href="#5.9">§5.9</a>).)
- <p>
- An access to a global variable <code>x</code>
- is equivalent to <code>_env.x</code>,
- which in turn is equivalent to
- <pre>
- gettable_event(_env, "x")
- </pre><p>
- where <code>_env</code> is the environment of the running function.
- (See <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a> for a complete description of the
- <code>gettable_event</code> function.
- This function is not defined or callable in Lua.
- Similarly, the <code>_env</code> variable is not defined in Lua.
- We use them here only for explanatory purposes.)
- <h2>2.4 - <a name="2.4">Statements</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua supports an almost conventional set of statements,
- similar to those in Pascal or C.
- This set includes
- assignment, control structures, function calls,
- and variable declarations.
- <h3>2.4.1 - <a name="2.4.1">Chunks</a></h3>
- <p>
- The unit of execution of Lua is called a <em>chunk</em>.
- A chunk is simply a sequence of statements,
- which are executed sequentially.
- Each statement can be optionally followed by a semicolon:
- <pre>
- chunk ::= {stat [`<b>;</b>´]}
- </pre><p>
- There are no empty statements and thus '<code>;;</code>' is not legal.
- <p>
- Lua handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function
- with a variable number of arguments
- (see <a href="#2.5.9">§2.5.9</a>).
- As such, chunks can define local variables,
- receive arguments, and return values.
- <p>
- A chunk may be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program.
- When a chunk is executed, first it is pre-compiled into instructions for
- a virtual machine,
- and then the compiled code is executed
- by an interpreter for the virtual machine.
- <p>
- Chunks may also be pre-compiled into binary form;
- see program <code>luac</code> for details.
- Programs in source and compiled forms are interchangeable;
- Lua automatically detects the file type and acts accordingly.
- <h3>2.4.2 - <a name="2.4.2">Blocks</a></h3><p>
- A block is a list of statements;
- syntactically, a block is the same as a chunk:
- <pre>
- block ::= chunk
- </pre>
- <p>
- A block may be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
- </pre><p>
- Explicit blocks are useful
- to control the scope of variable declarations.
- Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to
- add a <b>return</b> or <b>break</b> statement in the middle
- of another block (see <a href="#2.4.4">§2.4.4</a>).
- <h3>2.4.3 - <a name="2.4.3">Assignment</a></h3>
- <p>
- Lua allows multiple assignment.
- Therefore, the syntax for assignment
- defines a list of variables on the left side
- and a list of expressions on the right side.
- The elements in both lists are separated by commas:
- <pre>
- stat ::= varlist1 `<b>=</b>´ explist1
- varlist1 ::= var {`<b>,</b>´ var}
- explist1 ::= exp {`<b>,</b>´ exp}
- </pre><p>
- Expressions are discussed in <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a>.
- <p>
- Before the assignment,
- the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of
- the list of variables.
- If there are more values than needed,
- the excess values are thrown away.
- If there are fewer values than needed,
- the list is extended with as many <b>nil</b>'s as needed.
- If the list of expressions ends with a function call,
- then all values returned by this call enter in the list of values,
- before the adjustment
- (except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a>).
- <p>
- The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions
- and only then are the assignments performed.
- Thus the code
- <pre>
- i = 3
- i, a[i] = i+1, 20
- </pre><p>
- sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code>
- because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3)
- before it is assigned 4.
- Similarly, the line
- <pre>
- x, y = y, x
- </pre><p>
- exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>.
- <p>
- The meaning of assignments to global variables
- and table fields can be changed via metatables.
- An assignment to an indexed variable <code>t[i] = val</code> is equivalent to
- <code>settable_event(t,i,val)</code>.
- (See <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a> for a complete description of the
- <code>settable_event</code> function.
- This function is not defined or callable in Lua.
- We use it here only for explanatory purposes.)
- <p>
- An assignment to a global variable <code>x = val</code>
- is equivalent to the assignment
- <code>_env.x = val</code>,
- which in turn is equivalent to
- <pre>
- settable_event(_env, "x", val)
- </pre><p>
- where <code>_env</code> is the environment of the running function.
- (The <code>_env</code> variable is not defined in Lua.
- We use it here only for explanatory purposes.)
- <h3>2.4.4 - <a name="2.4.4">Control Structures</a></h3><p>
- The control structures
- <b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and
- familiar syntax:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
- stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp
- stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b>
- </pre><p>
- Lua also has a <b>for</b> statement, in two flavors (see <a href="#2.4.5">§2.4.5</a>).
- <p>
- The condition expression of a
- control structure may return any value.
- Both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> are considered false.
- All values different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> are considered true
- (in particular, the number 0 and the empty string are also true).
- <p>
- In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop,
- the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword,
- but only after the condition.
- So, the condition can refer to local variables
- declared inside the loop block.
- <p>
- The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values
- from a function or a chunk (which is just a function).
- Functions and chunks may return more than one value,
- so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist1]
- </pre>
- <p>
- The <b>break</b> statement is used to terminate the execution of a
- <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop,
- skipping to the next statement after the loop:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>break</b>
- </pre><p>
- A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop.
- <p>
- The <b>return</b> and <b>break</b>
- statements can only be written as the <em>last</em> statement of a block.
- If it is really necessary to <b>return</b> or <b>break</b> in the
- middle of a block,
- then an explicit inner block can be used,
- as in the idioms
- <code>do return end</code> and <code>do break end</code>,
- because now <b>return</b> and <b>break</b> are the last statements in
- their (inner) blocks.
- <h3>2.4.5 - <a name="2.4.5">For Statement</a></h3>
- <p>
- The <b>for</b> statement has two forms:
- one numeric and one generic.
- <p>
- The numeric <b>for</b> loop repeats a block of code while a
- control variable runs through an arithmetic progression.
- It has the following syntax:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>for</b> Name `<b>=</b>´ exp `<b>,</b>´ exp [`<b>,</b>´ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
- </pre><p>
- The <em>block</em> is repeated for <em>name</em> starting at the value of
- the first <em>exp</em>, until it passes the second <em>exp</em> by steps of the
- third <em>exp</em>.
- More precisely, a <b>for</b> statement like
- <pre>
- for v = <em>e1</em>, <em>e2</em>, <em>e3</em> do <em>block</em> end
- </pre><p>
- is equivalent to the code:
- <pre>
- do
- local <em>var</em>, <em>limit</em>, <em>step</em> = tonumber(<em>e1</em>), tonumber(<em>e2</em>), tonumber(<em>e3</em>)
- if not (<em>var</em> and <em>limit</em> and <em>step</em>) then error() end
- while (<em>step</em> > 0 and <em>var</em> <= <em>limit</em>) or (<em>step</em> <= 0 and <em>var</em> >= <em>limit</em>) do
- local v = <em>var</em>
- <em>block</em>
- <em>var</em> = <em>var</em> + <em>step</em>
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- Note the following:
- <ul>
- <li>
- All three control expressions are evaluated only once,
- before the loop starts.
- They must all result in numbers.
- </li>
- <li>
- <code><em>var</em></code>, <code><em>limit</em></code>, and <code><em>step</em></code> are invisible variables.
- The names are here for explanatory purposes only.
- </li>
- <li>
- If the third expression (the step) is absent,
- then a step of 1 is used.
- </li>
- <li>
- You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop.
- </li>
- <li>
- The loop variable <code>v</code> is local to the loop;
- you cannot use its value after the <b>for</b> ends or is broken.
- If you need this value,
- assign it to another variable before breaking or exiting the loop.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- The generic <b>for</b> statement works over functions,
- called <em>iterators</em>.
- On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value,
- stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>.
- The generic <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist1 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
- namelist ::= Name {`<b>,</b>´ Name}
- </pre><p>
- A <b>for</b> statement like
- <pre>
- for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>explist</em> do <em>block</em> end
- </pre><p>
- is equivalent to the code:
- <pre>
- do
- local <em>f</em>, <em>s</em>, <em>var</em> = <em>explist</em>
- while true do
- local <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> = <em>f</em>(<em>s</em>, <em>var</em>)
- <em>var</em> = <em>var_1</em>
- if <em>var</em> == nil then break end
- <em>block</em>
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- Note the following:
- <ul>
- <li>
- <code><em>explist</em></code> is evaluated only once.
- Its results are an <em>iterator</em> function,
- a <em>state</em>,
- and an initial value for the first <em>iterator variable</em>.
- </li>
- <li>
- <code><em>f</em></code>, <code><em>s</em></code>, and <code><em>var</em></code> are invisible variables.
- The names are here for explanatory purposes only.
- </li>
- <li>
- You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop.
- </li>
- <li>
- The loop variables <code><em>var_i</em></code> are local to the loop;
- you cannot use their values after the <b>for</b> ends.
- If you need these values,
- then assign them to other variables before breaking or exiting the loop.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h3>2.4.6 - <a name="2.4.6">Function Calls as Statements</a></h3><p>
- To allow possible side-effects,
- function calls can be executed as statements:
- <pre>
- stat ::= functioncall
- </pre><p>
- In this case, all returned values are thrown away.
- Function calls are explained in <a href="#2.5.8">§2.5.8</a>.
- <h3>2.4.7 - <a name="2.4.7">Local Declarations</a></h3><p>
- Local variables may be declared anywhere inside a block.
- The declaration may include an initial assignment:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>local</b> namelist [`<b>=</b>´ explist1]
- </pre><p>
- If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics
- of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#2.4.3">§2.4.3</a>).
- Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
- <p>
- A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#2.4.1">§2.4.1</a>),
- and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block.
- The scope of such local variables extends until the end of the chunk.
- <p>
- The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a>.
- <h2>2.5 - <a name="2.5">Expressions</a></h2>
- <p>
- The basic expressions in Lua are the following:
- <pre>
- exp ::= prefixexp
- exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b>
- exp ::= Number
- exp ::= String
- exp ::= function
- exp ::= tableconstructor
- exp ::= `<b>...</b>´
- exp ::= exp binop exp
- exp ::= unop exp
- prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | `<b>(</b>´ exp `<b>)</b>´
- </pre>
- <p>
- Numbers and literal strings are explained in <a href="#2.1">§2.1</a>;
- variables are explained in <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>;
- function definitions are explained in <a href="#2.5.9">§2.5.9</a>;
- function calls are explained in <a href="#2.5.8">§2.5.8</a>;
- table constructors are explained in <a href="#2.5.7">§2.5.7</a>.
- Vararg expressions,
- denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used inside
- vararg functions;
- they are explained in <a href="#2.5.9">§2.5.9</a>.
- <p>
- Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>),
- relational operators (see <a href="#2.5.2">§2.5.2</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
- and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#2.5.4">§2.5.4</a>).
- Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>),
- the unary <b>not</b> (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
- and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#2.5.5">§2.5.5</a>).
- <p>
- Both function calls and vararg expressions may result in multiple values.
- If the expression is used as a statement (see <a href="#2.4.6">§2.4.6</a>)
- (only possible for function calls),
- then its return list is adjusted to zero elements,
- thus discarding all returned values.
- If the expression is used as the last (or the only) element
- of a list of expressions,
- then no adjustment is made
- (unless the call is enclosed in parentheses).
- In all other contexts,
- Lua adjusts the result list to one element,
- discarding all values except the first one.
- <p>
- Here are some examples:
- <pre>
- f() -- adjusted to 0 results
- g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
- g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f()
- a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil)
- a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg parameter, b gets
- -- the second (both a and b may get nil if there
- -- is no corresponding vararg parameter)
-
- a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results
- a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results
- return f() -- returns all results from f()
- return ... -- returns all received vararg parameters
- return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f()
- {f()} -- creates a list with all results from f()
- {...} -- creates a list with all vararg parameters
- {f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
- </pre>
- <p>
- An expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value.
- Thus,
- <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value,
- even if <code>f</code> returns several values.
- (The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code>
- or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.)
- <h3>2.5.1 - <a name="2.5.1">Arithmetic Operators</a></h3><p>
- Lua supports the usual arithmetic operators:
- the binary <code>+</code> (addition),
- <code>-</code> (subtraction), <code>*</code> (multiplication),
- <code>/</code> (division), <code>%</code> (modulo), and <code>^</code> (exponentiation);
- and unary <code>-</code> (negation).
- If the operands are numbers, or strings that can be converted to
- numbers (see <a href="#2.2.1">§2.2.1</a>),
- then all operations have the usual meaning.
- Exponentiation works for any exponent.
- For instance, <code>x^(-0.5)</code> computes the inverse of the square root of <code>x</code>.
- Modulo is defined as
- <pre>
- a % b == a - math.floor(a/b)*b
- </pre><p>
- That is, it is the remainder of a division that rounds
- the quotient towards minus infinity.
- <h3>2.5.2 - <a name="2.5.2">Relational Operators</a></h3><p>
- The relational operators in Lua are
- <pre>
- == ~= < > <= >=
- </pre><p>
- These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
- <p>
- Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands.
- If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>.
- Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared.
- Numbers and strings are compared in the usual way.
- Objects (tables, userdata, threads, and functions)
- are compared by <em>reference</em>:
- two objects are considered equal only if they are the <em>same</em> object.
- Every time you create a new object
- (a table, userdata, thread, or function),
- this new object is different from any previously existing object.
- <p>
- You can change the way that Lua compares tables and userdata
- by using the "eq" metamethod (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <p>
- The conversion rules of <a href="#2.2.1">§2.2.1</a>
- <em>do not</em> apply to equality comparisons.
- Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>,
- and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different
- entries in a table.
- <p>
- The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>).
- <p>
- The order operators work as follows.
- If both arguments are numbers, then they are compared as such.
- Otherwise, if both arguments are strings,
- then their values are compared according to the current locale.
- Otherwise, Lua tries to call the "lt" or the "le"
- metamethod (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <h3>2.5.3 - <a name="2.5.3">Logical Operators</a></h3><p>
- The logical operators in Lua are
- <b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>.
- Like the control structures (see <a href="#2.4.4">§2.4.4</a>),
- all logical operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false
- and anything else as true.
- <p>
- The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
- The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument
- if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>;
- otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument.
- The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument
- if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>;
- otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument.
- Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-cut evaluation;
- that is,
- the second operand is evaluated only if necessary.
- Here are some examples:
- <pre>
- 10 or 20 --> 10
- 10 or error() --> 10
- nil or "a" --> "a"
- nil and 10 --> nil
- false and error() --> false
- false and nil --> false
- false or nil --> nil
- 10 and 20 --> 20
- </pre><p>
- (In this manual,
- --> indicates the result of the preceding expression.)
- <h3>2.5.4 - <a name="2.5.4">Concatenation</a></h3><p>
- The string concatenation operator in Lua is
- denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>').
- If both operands are strings or numbers, then they are converted to
- strings according to the rules mentioned in <a href="#2.2.1">§2.2.1</a>.
- Otherwise, the "concat" metamethod is called (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <h3>2.5.5 - <a name="2.5.5">The Length Operator</a></h3>
- <p>
- The length operator is denoted by the unary operator <code>#</code>.
- The length of a string is its number of bytes
- (that is, the usual meaning of string length when each
- character is one byte).
- <p>
- The length of a table <code>t</code> is defined to be any
- integer index <code>n</code>
- such that <code>t[n]</code> is not <b>nil</b> and <code>t[n+1]</code> is <b>nil</b>;
- moreover, if <code>t[1]</code> is <b>nil</b>, <code>n</code> may be zero.
- For a regular array, with non-nil values from 1 to a given <code>n</code>,
- its length is exactly that <code>n</code>,
- the index of its last value.
- If the array has "holes"
- (that is, <b>nil</b> values between other non-nil values),
- then <code>#t</code> may be any of the indices that
- directly precedes a <b>nil</b> value
- (that is, it may consider any such <b>nil</b> value as the end of
- the array).
- <h3>2.5.6 - <a name="2.5.6">Precedence</a></h3><p>
- Operator precedence in Lua follows the table below,
- from lower to higher priority:
- <pre>
- or
- and
- < > <= >= ~= ==
- ..
- + -
- * / %
- not # - (unary)
- ^
- </pre><p>
- As usual,
- you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression.
- The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>')
- operators are right associative.
- All other binary operators are left associative.
- <h3>2.5.7 - <a name="2.5.7">Table Constructors</a></h3><p>
- Table constructors are expressions that create tables.
- Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created.
- Constructors can be used to create empty tables,
- or to create a table and initialize some of its fields.
- The general syntax for constructors is
- <pre>
- tableconstructor ::= `<b>{</b>´ [fieldlist] `<b>}</b>´
- fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
- field ::= `<b>[</b>´ exp `<b>]</b>´ `<b>=</b>´ exp | Name `<b>=</b>´ exp | exp
- fieldsep ::= `<b>,</b>´ | `<b>;</b>´
- </pre>
- <p>
- Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry
- with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>.
- A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to
- <code>["name"] = exp</code>.
- Finally, fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to
- <code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive numerical integers,
- starting with 1.
- Fields in the other formats do not affect this counting.
- For example,
- <pre>
- a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 }
- </pre><p>
- is equivalent to
- <pre>
- do
- local t = {}
- t[f(1)] = g
- t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp
- t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp
- t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1
- t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp
- t[30] = 23
- t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp
- a = t
- end
- </pre>
- <p>
- If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code>
- and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression,
- then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively
- (see <a href="#2.5.8">§2.5.8</a>).
- To avoid this,
- enclose the function call (or the vararg expression)
- in parentheses (see <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a>).
- <p>
- The field list may have an optional trailing separator,
- as a convenience for machine-generated code.
- <h3>2.5.8 - <a name="2.5.8">Function Calls</a></h3><p>
- A function call in Lua has the following syntax:
- <pre>
- functioncall ::= prefixexp args
- </pre><p>
- In a function call,
- first prefixexp and args are evaluated.
- If the value of prefixexp has type <em>function</em>,
- then this function is called
- with the given arguments.
- Otherwise, the prefixexp "call" metamethod is called,
- having as first parameter the value of prefixexp,
- followed by the original call arguments
- (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <p>
- The form
- <pre>
- functioncall ::= prefixexp `<b>:</b>´ Name args
- </pre><p>
- can be used to call "methods".
- A call <code>v:name(<em>args</em>)</code>
- is syntactic sugar for <code>v.name(v,<em>args</em>)</code>,
- except that <code>v</code> is evaluated only once.
- <p>
- Arguments have the following syntax:
- <pre>
- args ::= `<b>(</b>´ [explist1] `<b>)</b>´
- args ::= tableconstructor
- args ::= String
- </pre><p>
- All argument expressions are evaluated before the call.
- A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is
- syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>;
- that is, the argument list is a single new table.
- A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code>
- (or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>)
- is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>;
- that is, the argument list is a single literal string.
- <p>
- As an exception to the free-format syntax of Lua,
- you cannot put a line break before the '<code>(</code>' in a function call.
- This restriction avoids some ambiguities in the language.
- If you write
- <pre>
- a = f
- (g).x(a)
- </pre><p>
- Lua would see that as a single statement, <code>a = f(g).x(a)</code>.
- So, if you want two statements, you must add a semi-colon between them.
- If you actually want to call <code>f</code>,
- you must remove the line break before <code>(g)</code>.
- <p>
- A call of the form <code>return</code> <em>functioncall</em> is called
- a <em>tail call</em>.
- Lua implements <em>proper tail calls</em>
- (or <em>proper tail recursion</em>):
- in a tail call,
- the called function reuses the stack entry of the calling function.
- Therefore, there is no limit on the number of nested tail calls that
- a program can execute.
- However, a tail call erases any debug information about the
- calling function.
- Note that a tail call only happens with a particular syntax,
- where the <b>return</b> has one single function call as argument;
- this syntax makes the calling function return exactly
- the returns of the called function.
- So, none of the following examples are tail calls:
- <pre>
- return (f(x)) -- results adjusted to 1
- return 2 * f(x)
- return x, f(x) -- additional results
- f(x); return -- results discarded
- return x or f(x) -- results adjusted to 1
- </pre>
- <h3>2.5.9 - <a name="2.5.9">Function Definitions</a></h3>
- <p>
- The syntax for function definition is
- <pre>
- function ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
- funcbody ::= `<b>(</b>´ [parlist1] `<b>)</b>´ block <b>end</b>
- </pre>
- <p>
- The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions:
- <pre>
- stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody
- stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody
- funcname ::= Name {`<b>.</b>´ Name} [`<b>:</b>´ Name]
- </pre><p>
- The statement
- <pre>
- function f () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- translates to
- <pre>
- f = function () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- The statement
- <pre>
- function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- translates to
- <pre>
- t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- The statement
- <pre>
- local function f () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- translates to
- <pre>
- local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- <em>not</em> to
- <pre>
- local f = function () <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- (This only makes a difference when the body of the function
- contains references to <code>f</code>.)
- <p>
- A function definition is an executable expression,
- whose value has type <em>function</em>.
- When Lua pre-compiles a chunk,
- all its function bodies are pre-compiled too.
- Then, whenever Lua executes the function definition,
- the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>).
- This function instance (or <em>closure</em>)
- is the final value of the expression.
- Different instances of the same function
- may refer to different external local variables
- and may have different environment tables.
- <p>
- Parameters act as local variables that are
- initialized with the argument values:
- <pre>
- parlist1 ::= namelist [`<b>,</b>´ `<b>...</b>´] | `<b>...</b>´
- </pre><p>
- When a function is called,
- the list of arguments is adjusted to
- the length of the list of parameters,
- unless the function is a variadic or <em>vararg function</em>,
- which is
- indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>') at the end of its parameter list.
- A vararg function does not adjust its argument list;
- instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them
- to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>,
- which is also written as three dots.
- The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments,
- similar to a function with multiple results.
- If a vararg expression is used inside another expression
- or in the middle of a list of expressions,
- then its return list is adjusted to one element.
- If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions,
- then no adjustment is made
- (unless the call is enclosed in parentheses).
- <p>
- As an example, consider the following definitions:
- <pre>
- function f(a, b) end
- function g(a, b, ...) end
- function r() return 1,2,3 end
- </pre><p>
- Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and
- to the vararg expression:
- <pre>
- CALL PARAMETERS
-
- f(3) a=3, b=nil
- f(3, 4) a=3, b=4
- f(3, 4, 5) a=3, b=4
- f(r(), 10) a=1, b=10
- f(r()) a=1, b=2
-
- g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing)
- g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing)
- g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8
- g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3
- </pre>
- <p>
- Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#2.4.4">§2.4.4</a>).
- If control reaches the end of a function
- without encountering a <b>return</b> statement,
- then the function returns with no results.
- <p>
- The <em>colon</em> syntax
- is used for defining <em>methods</em>,
- that is, functions that have an implicit extra parameter <code>self</code>.
- Thus, the statement
- <pre>
- function t.a.b.c:f (<em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- is syntactic sugar for
- <pre>
- t.a.b.c.f = function (self, <em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
- </pre>
- <h2>2.6 - <a name="2.6">Visibility Rules</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua is a lexically scoped language.
- The scope of variables begins at the first statement <em>after</em>
- their declaration and lasts until the end of the innermost block that
- includes the declaration.
- Consider the following example:
- <pre>
- x = 10 -- global variable
- do -- new block
- local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10
- print(x) --> 10
- x = x+1
- do -- another block
- local x = x+1 -- another 'x'
- print(x) --> 12
- end
- print(x) --> 11
- end
- print(x) --> 10 (the global one)
- </pre>
- <p>
- Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>,
- the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet,
- and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable.
- <p>
- Because of the lexical scoping rules,
- local variables can be freely accessed by functions
- defined inside their scope.
- A local variable used by an inner function is called
- an <em>upvalue</em>, or <em>external local variable</em>,
- inside the inner function.
- <p>
- Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement
- defines new local variables.
- Consider the following example:
- <pre>
- a = {}
- local x = 20
- for i=1,10 do
- local y = 0
- a[i] = function () y=y+1; return x+y end
- end
- </pre><p>
- The loop creates ten closures
- (that is, ten instances of the anonymous function).
- Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable,
- while all of them share the same <code>x</code>.
- <h2>2.7 - <a name="2.7">Error Handling</a></h2>
- <p>
- Because Lua is an embedded extension language,
- all Lua actions start from C code in the host program
- calling a function from the Lua library (see <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>).
- Whenever an error occurs during Lua compilation or execution,
- control returns to C,
- which can take appropriate measures
- (such as printing an error message).
- <p>
- Lua code can explicitly generate an error by calling the
- <a href="#pdf-error"><code>error</code></a> function.
- If you need to catch errors in Lua,
- you can use the <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> function.
- <h2>2.8 - <a name="2.8">Metatables</a></h2>
- <p>
- Every value in Lua may have a <em>metatable</em>.
- This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Lua table
- that defines the behavior of the original value
- under certain special operations.
- You can change several aspects of the behavior
- of operations over a value by setting specific fields in its metatable.
- For instance, when a non-numeric value is the operand of an addition,
- Lua checks for a function in the field <code>"__add"</code> in its metatable.
- If it finds one,
- Lua calls this function to perform the addition.
- <p>
- We call the keys in a metatable <em>events</em>
- and the values <em>metamethods</em>.
- In the previous example, the event is <code>"add"</code>
- and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition.
- <p>
- You can query the metatable of any value
- through the <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a> function.
- <p>
- You can replace the metatable of tables
- through the <a href="#pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable</code></a>
- function.
- You cannot change the metatable of other types from Lua
- (except using the debug library);
- you must use the C API for that.
- <p>
- Tables and userdata have individual metatables
- (although multiple tables and userdata can share
- a same table as their metatable);
- values of all other types share one single metatable per type.
- So, there is one single metatable for all numbers,
- and for all strings, etc.
- <p>
- A metatable may control how an object behaves in arithmetic operations,
- order comparisons, concatenation, length operation, and indexing.
- A metatable can also define a function to be called when a userdata
- is garbage collected.
- For each of these operations Lua associates a specific key
- called an <em>event</em>.
- When Lua performs one of these operations over a value,
- it checks whether this value has a metatable with the corresponding event.
- If so, the value associated with that key (the metamethod)
- controls how Lua will perform the operation.
- <p>
- Metatables control the operations listed next.
- Each operation is identified by its corresponding name.
- The key for each operation is a string with its name prefixed by
- two underscores, '<code>__</code>';
- for instance, the key for operation "add" is the
- string <code>"__add"</code>.
- The semantics of these operations is better explained by a Lua function
- describing how the interpreter executes the operation.
- <p>
- The code shown here in Lua is only illustrative;
- the real behavior is hard coded in the interpreter
- and it is much more efficient than this simulation.
- All functions used in these descriptions
- (<a href="#pdf-rawget"><code>rawget</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-tonumber"><code>tonumber</code></a>, etc.)
- are described in <a href="#5.1">§5.1</a>.
- In particular, to retrieve the metamethod of a given object,
- we use the expression
- <pre>
- metatable(obj)[event]
- </pre><p>
- This should be read as
- <pre>
- rawget(getmetatable(obj) or {}, event)
- </pre><p>
- That is, the access to a metamethod does not invoke other metamethods,
- and the access to objects with no metatables does not fail
- (it simply results in <b>nil</b>).
- <ul>
- <li><b>"add":</b>
- the <code>+</code> operation.
- <p>
- The function <code>getbinhandler</code> below defines how Lua chooses a handler
- for a binary operation.
- First, Lua tries the first operand.
- If its type does not define a handler for the operation,
- then Lua tries the second operand.
- <pre>
- function getbinhandler (op1, op2, event)
- return metatable(op1)[event] or metatable(op2)[event]
- end
- </pre><p>
- By using this function,
- the behavior of the <code>op1 + op2</code> is
- <pre>
- function add_event (op1, op2)
- local o1, o2 = tonumber(op1), tonumber(op2)
- if o1 and o2 then -- both operands are numeric?
- return o1 + o2 -- '+' here is the primitive 'add'
- else -- at least one of the operands is not numeric
- local h = getbinhandler(op1, op2, "__add")
- if h then
- -- call the handler with both operands
- return h(op1, op2)
- else -- no handler available: default behavior
- error(···)
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- <li><b>"sub":</b>
- the <code>-</code> operation.
- Behavior similar to the "add" operation.
- </li>
- <li><b>"mul":</b>
- the <code>*</code> operation.
- Behavior similar to the "add" operation.
- </li>
- <li><b>"div":</b>
- the <code>/</code> operation.
- Behavior similar to the "add" operation.
- </li>
- <li><b>"mod":</b>
- the <code>%</code> operation.
- Behavior similar to the "add" operation,
- with the operation
- <code>o1 - floor(o1/o2)*o2</code> as the primitive operation.
- </li>
- <li><b>"pow":</b>
- the <code>^</code> (exponentiation) operation.
- Behavior similar to the "add" operation,
- with the function <code>pow</code> (from the C math library)
- as the primitive operation.
- </li>
- <li><b>"unm":</b>
- the unary <code>-</code> operation.
- <pre>
- function unm_event (op)
- local o = tonumber(op)
- if o then -- operand is numeric?
- return -o -- '-' here is the primitive 'unm'
- else -- the operand is not numeric.
- -- Try to get a handler from the operand
- local h = metatable(op).__unm
- if h then
- -- call the handler with the operand
- return h(op)
- else -- no handler available: default behavior
- error(···)
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- <li><b>"concat":</b>
- the <code>..</code> (concatenation) operation.
- <pre>
- function concat_event (op1, op2)
- if (type(op1) == "string" or type(op1) == "number") and
- (type(op2) == "string" or type(op2) == "number") then
- return op1 .. op2 -- primitive string concatenation
- else
- local h = getbinhandler(op1, op2, "__concat")
- if h then
- return h(op1, op2)
- else
- error(···)
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- <li><b>"len":</b>
- the <code>#</code> operation.
- <pre>
- function len_event (op)
- if type(op) == "string" then
- return strlen(op) -- primitive string length
- elseif type(op) == "table" then
- return #op -- primitive table length
- else
- local h = metatable(op).__len
- if h then
- -- call the handler with the operand
- return h(op)
- else -- no handler available: default behavior
- error(···)
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- See <a href="#2.5.5">§2.5.5</a> for a description of the length of a table.
- </li>
- <li><b>"eq":</b>
- the <code>==</code> operation.
- The function <code>getcomphandler</code> defines how Lua chooses a metamethod
- for comparison operators.
- A metamethod only is selected when both objects
- being compared have the same type
- and the same metamethod for the selected operation.
- <pre>
- function getcomphandler (op1, op2, event)
- if type(op1) ~= type(op2) then return nil end
- local mm1 = metatable(op1)[event]
- local mm2 = metatable(op2)[event]
- if mm1 == mm2 then return mm1 else return nil end
- end
- </pre><p>
- The "eq" event is defined as follows:
- <pre>
- function eq_event (op1, op2)
- if type(op1) ~= type(op2) then -- different types?
- return false -- different objects
- end
- if op1 == op2 then -- primitive equal?
- return true -- objects are equal
- end
- -- try metamethod
- local h = getcomphandler(op1, op2, "__eq")
- if h then
- return h(op1, op2)
- else
- return false
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- <code>a ~= b</code> is equivalent to <code>not (a == b)</code>.
- </li>
- <li><b>"lt":</b>
- the <code><</code> operation.
- <pre>
- function lt_event (op1, op2)
- if type(op1) == "number" and type(op2) == "number" then
- return op1 < op2 -- numeric comparison
- elseif type(op1) == "string" and type(op2) == "string" then
- return op1 < op2 -- lexicographic comparison
- else
- local h = getcomphandler(op1, op2, "__lt")
- if h then
- return h(op1, op2)
- else
- error(···);
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- <code>a > b</code> is equivalent to <code>b < a</code>.
- </li>
- <li><b>"le":</b>
- the <code><=</code> operation.
- <pre>
- function le_event (op1, op2)
- if type(op1) == "number" and type(op2) == "number" then
- return op1 <= op2 -- numeric comparison
- elseif type(op1) == "string" and type(op2) == "string" then
- return op1 <= op2 -- lexicographic comparison
- else
- local h = getcomphandler(op1, op2, "__le")
- if h then
- return h(op1, op2)
- else
- h = getcomphandler(op1, op2, "__lt")
- if h then
- return not h(op2, op1)
- else
- error(···);
- end
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- <code>a >= b</code> is equivalent to <code>b <= a</code>.
- Note that, in the absence of a "le" metamethod,
- Lua tries the "lt", assuming that <code>a <= b</code> is
- equivalent to <code>not (b < a)</code>.
- </li>
- <li><b>"index":</b>
- The indexing access <code>table[key]</code>.
- <pre>
- function gettable_event (table, key)
- local h
- if type(table) == "table" then
- local v = rawget(table, key)
- if v ~= nil then return v end
- h = metatable(table).__index
- if h == nil then return nil end
- else
- h = metatable(table).__index
- if h == nil then
- error(···);
- end
- end
- if type(h) == "function" then
- return h(table, key) -- call the handler
- else return h[key] -- or repeat operation on it
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- <li><b>"newindex":</b>
- The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>.
- <pre>
- function settable_event (table, key, value)
- local h
- if type(table) == "table" then
- local v = rawget(table, key)
- if v ~= nil then rawset(table, key, value); return end
- h = metatable(table).__newindex
- if h == nil then rawset(table, key, value); return end
- else
- h = metatable(table).__newindex
- if h == nil then
- error(···);
- end
- end
- if type(h) == "function" then
- return h(table, key,value) -- call the handler
- else h[key] = value -- or repeat operation on it
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- <li><b>"call":</b>
- called when Lua calls a value.
- <pre>
- function function_event (func, ...)
- if type(func) == "function" then
- return func(...) -- primitive call
- else
- local h = metatable(func).__call
- if h then
- return h(func, ...)
- else
- error(···)
- end
- end
- end
- </pre><p>
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h2>2.9 - <a name="2.9">Environments</a></h2>
- <p>
- Besides metatables,
- objects of types thread, function, and userdata
- have another table associated with them,
- called their <em>environment</em>.
- Like metatables, environments are regular tables and
- multiple objects can share the same environment.
- <p>
- Environments associated with userdata have no meaning for Lua.
- It is only a convenience feature for programmers to associate a table to
- a userdata.
- <p>
- Environments associated with threads are called
- <em>global environments</em>.
- They are used as the default environment for their threads and
- non-nested functions created by the thread
- (through <a href="#pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-loadstring"><code>loadstring</code></a> or <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>)
- and can be directly accessed by C code (see <a href="#3.3">§3.3</a>).
- <p>
- Environments associated with C functions can be directly
- accessed by C code (see <a href="#3.3">§3.3</a>).
- They are used as the default environment for other C functions
- created by the function.
- <p>
- Environments associated with Lua functions are used to resolve
- all accesses to global variables within the function (see <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>).
- They are used as the default environment for other Lua functions
- created by the function.
- <p>
- You can change the environment of a Lua function or the
- running thread by calling <a href="#pdf-setfenv"><code>setfenv</code></a>.
- You can get the environment of a Lua function or the running thread
- by calling <a href="#pdf-getfenv"><code>getfenv</code></a>.
- To manipulate the environment of other objects
- (userdata, C functions, other threads) you must
- use the C API.
- <h2>2.10 - <a name="2.10">Garbage Collection</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua performs automatic memory management.
- This means that
- you have to worry neither about allocating memory for new objects
- nor about freeing it when the objects are no longer needed.
- Lua manages memory automatically by running
- a <em>garbage collector</em> from time to time
- to collect all <em>dead objects</em>
- (that is, these objects that are no longer accessible from Lua).
- All objects in Lua are subject to automatic management:
- tables, userdata, functions, threads, and strings.
- <p>
- Lua implements an incremental mark-and-sweep collector.
- It uses two numbers to control its garbage-collection cycles:
- the <em>garbage-collector pause</em> and
- the <em>garbage-collector step multiplier</em>.
- <p>
- The garbage-collector pause
- controls how long the collector waits before starting a new cycle.
- Larger values make the collector less aggressive.
- Values smaller than 1 mean the collector will not wait to
- start a new cycle.
- A value of 2 means that the collector waits for the total memory in use
- to double before starting a new cycle.
- <p>
- The step multiplier
- controls the relative speed of the collector relative to
- memory allocation.
- Larger values make the collector more aggressive but also increase
- the size of each incremental step.
- Values smaller than 1 make the collector too slow and
- may result in the collector never finishing a cycle.
- The default, 2, means that the collector runs at "twice"
- the speed of memory allocation.
- <p>
- You can change these numbers by calling <a href="#lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a> in C
- or <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> in Lua.
- Both get percentage points as arguments
- (so an argument of 100 means a real value of 1).
- With these functions you can also control
- the collector directly (e.g., stop and restart it).
- <h3>2.10.1 - <a name="2.10.1">Garbage-Collection Metamethods</a></h3>
- <p>
- Using the C API,
- you can set garbage-collector metamethods for userdata (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- These metamethods are also called <em>finalizers</em>.
- Finalizers allow you to coordinate Lua's garbage collection
- with external resource management
- (such as closing files, network or database connections,
- or freeing your own memory).
- <p>
- Garbage userdata with a field <code>__gc</code> in their metatables are not
- collected immediately by the garbage collector.
- Instead, Lua puts them in a list.
- After the collection,
- Lua does the equivalent of the following function
- for each userdata in that list:
- <pre>
- function gc_event (udata)
- local h = metatable(udata).__gc
- if h then
- h(udata)
- end
- end
- </pre>
- <p>
- At the end of each garbage-collection cycle,
- the finalizers for userdata are called in <em>reverse</em>
- order of their creation,
- among those collected in that cycle.
- That is, the first finalizer to be called is the one associated
- with the userdata created last in the program.
- <h3>2.10.2 - <a name="2.10.2">Weak Tables</a></h3>
- <p>
- A <em>weak table</em> is a table whose elements are
- <em>weak references</em>.
- A weak reference is ignored by the garbage collector.
- In other words,
- if the only references to an object are weak references,
- then the garbage collector will collect this object.
- <p>
- A weak table can have weak keys, weak values, or both.
- A table with weak keys allows the collection of its keys,
- but prevents the collection of its values.
- A table with both weak keys and weak values allows the collection of
- both keys and values.
- In any case, if either the key or the value is collected,
- the whole pair is removed from the table.
- The weakness of a table is controlled by the value of the
- <code>__mode</code> field of its metatable.
- If the <code>__mode</code> field is a string containing the character '<code>k</code>',
- the keys in the table are weak.
- If <code>__mode</code> contains '<code>v</code>',
- the values in the table are weak.
- <p>
- After you use a table as a metatable,
- you should not change the value of its field <code>__mode</code>.
- Otherwise, the weak behavior of the tables controlled by this
- metatable is undefined.
- <h2>2.11 - <a name="2.11">Coroutines</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua supports coroutines,
- also called <em>collaborative multithreading</em>.
- A coroutine in Lua represents an independent thread of execution.
- Unlike threads in multithread systems, however,
- a coroutine only suspends its execution by explicitly calling
- a yield function.
- <p>
- You create a coroutine with a call to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>.
- Its sole argument is a function
- that is the main function of the coroutine.
- The <code>create</code> function only creates a new coroutine and
- returns a handle to it (an object of type <em>thread</em>);
- it does not start the coroutine execution.
- <p>
- When you first call <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
- passing as its first argument
- the thread returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
- the coroutine starts its execution,
- at the first line of its main function.
- Extra arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> are passed on
- to the coroutine main function.
- After the coroutine starts running,
- it runs until it terminates or <em>yields</em>.
- <p>
- A coroutine can terminate its execution in two ways:
- normally, when its main function returns
- (explicitly or implicitly, after the last instruction);
- and abnormally, if there is an unprotected error.
- In the first case, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>true</b>,
- plus any values returned by the coroutine main function.
- In case of errors, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>false</b>
- plus an error message.
- <p>
- A coroutine yields by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
- When a coroutine yields,
- the corresponding <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns immediately,
- even if the yield happens inside nested function calls
- (that is, not in the main function,
- but in a function directly or indirectly called by the main function).
- In the case of a yield, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> also returns <b>true</b>,
- plus any values passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
- The next time you resume the same coroutine,
- it continues its execution from the point where it yielded,
- with the call to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a> returning any extra
- arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
- <p>
- Like <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
- the <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> function also creates a coroutine,
- but instead of returning the coroutine itself,
- it returns a function that, when called, resumes the coroutine.
- Any arguments passed to this function
- go as extra arguments to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
- <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> returns all the values returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
- except the first one (the boolean error code).
- Unlike <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
- <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> does not catch errors;
- any error is propagated to the caller.
- <p>
- As an example,
- consider the following code:
- <pre>
- function foo (a)
- print("foo", a)
- return coroutine.yield(2*a)
- end
-
- co = coroutine.create(function (a,b)
- print("co-body", a, b)
- local r = foo(a+1)
- print("co-body", r)
- local r, s = coroutine.yield(a+b, a-b)
- print("co-body", r, s)
- return b, "end"
- end)
-
- print("main", coroutine.resume(co, 1, 10))
- print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "r"))
- print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
- print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
- </pre><p>
- When you run it, it produces the following output:
- <pre>
- co-body 1 10
- foo 2
-
- main true 4
- co-body r
- main true 11 -9
- co-body x y
- main true 10 end
- main false cannot resume dead coroutine
- </pre>
- <h1>3 - <a name="3">The Application Program Interface</a></h1>
- <p>
- This section describes the C API for Lua, that is,
- the set of C functions available to the host program to communicate
- with Lua.
- All API functions and related types and constants
- are declared in the header file <a name="pdf-lua.h"><code>lua.h</code></a>.
- <p>
- Even when we use the term "function",
- any facility in the API may be provided as a macro instead.
- All such macros use each of their arguments exactly once
- (except for the first argument, which is always a Lua state),
- and so do not generate any hidden side-effects.
- <p>
- As in most C libraries,
- the Lua API functions do not check their arguments for validity or consistency.
- However, you can change this behavior by compiling Lua
- with a proper definition for the macro <a name="pdf-luai_apicheck"><code>luai_apicheck</code></a>,
- in file <code>luaconf.h</code>.
- <h2>3.1 - <a name="3.1">The Stack</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua uses a <em>virtual stack</em> to pass values to and from C.
- Each element in this stack represents a Lua value
- (<b>nil</b>, number, string, etc.).
- <p>
- Whenever Lua calls C, the called function gets a new stack,
- which is independent of previous stacks and of stacks of
- C functions that are still active.
- This stack initially contains any arguments to the C function
- and it is where the C function pushes its results
- to be returned to the caller (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
- <p>
- For convenience,
- most query operations in the API do not follow a strict stack discipline.
- Instead, they can refer to any element in the stack
- by using an <em>index</em>:
- A positive index represents an <em>absolute</em> stack position
- (starting at 1);
- a negative index represents an <em>offset</em> relative to the top of the stack.
- More specifically, if the stack has <em>n</em> elements,
- then index 1 represents the first element
- (that is, the element that was pushed onto the stack first)
- and
- index <em>n</em> represents the last element;
- index -1 also represents the last element
- (that is, the element at the top)
- and index <em>-n</em> represents the first element.
- We say that an index is <em>valid</em>
- if it lies between 1 and the stack top
- (that is, if <code>1 ≤ abs(index) ≤ top</code>).
-
- <h2>3.2 - <a name="3.2">Stack Size</a></h2>
- <p>
- When you interact with Lua API,
- you are responsible for ensuring consistency.
- In particular,
- <em>you are responsible for controlling stack overflow</em>.
- You can use the function <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>
- to grow the stack size.
- <p>
- Whenever Lua calls C,
- it ensures that at least <a name="pdf-LUA_MINSTACK"><code>LUA_MINSTACK</code></a> stack positions are available.
- <code>LUA_MINSTACK</code> is defined as 20,
- so that usually you do not have to worry about stack space
- unless your code has loops pushing elements onto the stack.
- <p>
- Most query functions accept as indices any value inside the
- available stack space, that is, indices up to the maximum stack size
- you have set through <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>.
- Such indices are called <em>acceptable indices</em>.
- More formally, we define an <em>acceptable index</em>
- as follows:
- <pre>
- (index < 0 && abs(index) <= top) ||
- (index > 0 && index <= stackspace)
- </pre><p>
- Note that 0 is never an acceptable index.
- <h2>3.3 - <a name="3.3">Pseudo-Indices</a></h2>
- <p>
- Unless otherwise noted,
- any function that accepts valid indices can also be called with
- <em>pseudo-indices</em>,
- which represent some Lua values that are accessible to C code
- but which are not in the stack.
- Pseudo-indices are used to access the thread environment,
- the function environment,
- the registry,
- and the upvalues of a C function (see <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>).
- <p>
- The thread environment (where global variables live) is
- always at pseudo-index <a name="pdf-LUA_GLOBALSINDEX"><code>LUA_GLOBALSINDEX</code></a>.
- The environment of the running C function is always
- at pseudo-index <a name="pdf-LUA_ENVIRONINDEX"><code>LUA_ENVIRONINDEX</code></a>.
- <p>
- To access and change the value of global variables,
- you can use regular table operations over an environment table.
- For instance, to access the value of a global variable, do
- <pre>
- lua_getfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, varname);
- </pre>
- <h2>3.4 - <a name="3.4">C Closures</a></h2>
- <p>
- When a C function is created,
- it is possible to associate some values with it,
- thus creating a <em>C closure</em>;
- these values are called <em>upvalues</em> and are
- accessible to the function whenever it is called
- (see <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>).
- <p>
- Whenever a C function is called,
- its upvalues are located at specific pseudo-indices.
- These pseudo-indices are produced by the macro
- <a name="lua_upvalueindex"><code>lua_upvalueindex</code></a>.
- The first value associated with a function is at position
- <code>lua_upvalueindex(1)</code>, and so on.
- Any access to <code>lua_upvalueindex(<em>n</em>)</code>,
- where <em>n</em> is greater than the number of upvalues of the
- current function,
- produces an acceptable (but invalid) index.
- <h2>3.5 - <a name="3.5">Registry</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua provides a <em>registry</em>,
- a pre-defined table that can be used by any C code to
- store whatever Lua value it needs to store.
- This table is always located at pseudo-index
- <a name="pdf-LUA_REGISTRYINDEX"><code>LUA_REGISTRYINDEX</code></a>.
- Any C library can store data into this table,
- but it should take care to choose keys different from those used
- by other libraries, to avoid collisions.
- Typically, you should use as key a string containing your library name
- or a light userdata with the address of a C object in your code.
- <p>
- The integer keys in the registry are used by the reference mechanism,
- implemented by the auxiliary library,
- and therefore should not be used for other purposes.
- <h2>3.6 - <a name="3.6">Error Handling in C</a></h2>
- <p>
- Internally, Lua uses the C <code>longjmp</code> facility to handle errors.
- (You can also choose to use exceptions if you use C++;
- see file <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- When Lua faces any error
- (such as memory allocation errors, type errors, syntax errors,
- and runtime errors)
- it <em>raises</em> an error;
- that is, it does a long jump.
- A <em>protected environment</em> uses <code>setjmp</code>
- to set a recover point;
- any error jumps to the most recent active recover point.
- <p>
- Almost any function in the API may raise an error,
- for instance due to a memory allocation error.
- The following functions run in protected mode
- (that is, they create a protected environment to run),
- so they never raise an error:
- <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>, <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>, <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>,
- <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_cpcall"><code>lua_cpcall</code></a>.
- <p>
- Inside a C function you can raise an error by calling <a href="#lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a>.
- <h2>3.7 - <a name="3.7">Functions and Types</a></h2>
- <p>
- Here we list all functions and types from the C API in
- alphabetical order.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Alloc"><code>lua_Alloc</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef void * (*lua_Alloc) (void *ud,
- void *ptr,
- size_t osize,
- size_t nsize);</pre>
- <p>
- The type of the memory-allocation function used by Lua states.
- The allocator function must provide a
- functionality similar to <code>realloc</code>,
- but not exactly the same.
- Its arguments are
- <code>ud</code>, an opaque pointer passed to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>;
- <code>ptr</code>, a pointer to the block being allocated/reallocated/freed;
- <code>osize</code>, the original size of the block;
- <code>nsize</code>, the new size of the block.
- <code>ptr</code> is <code>NULL</code> if and only if <code>osize</code> is zero.
- When <code>nsize</code> is zero, the allocator must return <code>NULL</code>;
- if <code>osize</code> is not zero,
- it should free the block pointed to by <code>ptr</code>.
- When <code>nsize</code> is not zero, the allocator returns <code>NULL</code>
- if and only if it cannot fill the request.
- When <code>nsize</code> is not zero and <code>osize</code> is zero,
- the allocator should behave like <code>malloc</code>.
- When <code>nsize</code> and <code>osize</code> are not zero,
- the allocator behaves like <code>realloc</code>.
- Lua assumes that the allocator never fails when
- <code>osize >= nsize</code>.
- <p>
- Here is a simple implementation for the allocator function.
- It is used in the auxiliary library by <a href="#luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a>.
- <pre>
- static void *l_alloc (void *ud, void *ptr, size_t osize,
- size_t nsize) {
- (void)ud; (void)osize; /* not used */
- if (nsize == 0) {
- free(ptr);
- return NULL;
- }
- else
- return realloc(ptr, nsize);
- }
- </pre><p>
- This code assumes
- that <code>free(NULL)</code> has no effect and that
- <code>realloc(NULL, size)</code> is equivalent to <code>malloc(size)</code>.
- ANSI C ensures both behaviors.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_CFunction lua_atpanic (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction panicf);</pre>
- <p>
- Sets a new panic function and returns the old one.
- <p>
- If an error happens outside any protected environment,
- Lua calls a <em>panic function</em>
- and then calls <code>exit(EXIT_FAILURE)</code>,
- thus exiting the host application.
- Your panic function may avoid this exit by
- never returning (e.g., doing a long jump).
- <p>
- The panic function can access the error message at the top of the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_call (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults);</pre>
- <p>
- Calls a function.
- <p>
- To call a function you must use the following protocol:
- first, the function to be called is pushed onto the stack;
- then, the arguments to the function are pushed
- in direct order;
- that is, the first argument is pushed first.
- Finally you call <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>;
- <code>nargs</code> is the number of arguments that you pushed onto the stack.
- All arguments and the function value are popped from the stack
- when the function is called.
- The function results are pushed onto the stack when the function returns.
- The number of results is adjusted to <code>nresults</code>,
- unless <code>nresults</code> is <a name="pdf-LUA_MULTRET"><code>LUA_MULTRET</code></a>.
- In this case, <em>all</em> results from the function are pushed.
- Lua takes care that the returned values fit into the stack space.
- The function results are pushed onto the stack in direct order
- (the first result is pushed first),
- so that after the call the last result is on the top of the stack.
- <p>
- Any error inside the called function is propagated upwards
- (with a <code>longjmp</code>).
- <p>
- The following example shows how the host program may do the
- equivalent to this Lua code:
- <pre>
- a = f("how", t.x, 14)
- </pre><p>
- Here it is in C:
- <pre>
- lua_getfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, "f"); /* function to be called */
- lua_pushstring(L, "how"); /* 1st argument */
- lua_getfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, "t"); /* table to be indexed */
- lua_getfield(L, -1, "x"); /* push result of t.x (2nd arg) */
- lua_remove(L, -2); /* remove 't' from the stack */
- lua_pushinteger(L, 14); /* 3rd argument */
- lua_call(L, 3, 1); /* call 'f' with 3 arguments and 1 result */
- lua_setfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, "a"); /* set global 'a' */
- </pre><p>
- Note that the code above is "balanced":
- at its end, the stack is back to its original configuration.
- This is considered good programming practice.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef int (*lua_CFunction) (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Type for C functions.
- <p>
- In order to communicate properly with Lua,
- a C function must use the following protocol,
- which defines the way parameters and results are passed:
- a C function receives its arguments from Lua in its stack
- in direct order (the first argument is pushed first).
- So, when the function starts,
- <code>lua_gettop(L)</code> returns the number of arguments received by the function.
- The first argument (if any) is at index 1
- and its last argument is at index <code>lua_gettop(L)</code>.
- To return values to Lua, a C function just pushes them onto the stack,
- in direct order (the first result is pushed first),
- and returns the number of results.
- Any other value in the stack below the results will be properly
- discarded by Lua.
- Like a Lua function, a C function called by Lua can also return
- many results.
- <p>
- As an example, the following function receives a variable number
- of numerical arguments and returns their average and sum:
- <pre>
- static int foo (lua_State *L) {
- int n = lua_gettop(L); /* number of arguments */
- lua_Number sum = 0;
- int i;
- for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
- if (!lua_isnumber(L, i)) {
- lua_pushstring(L, "incorrect argument");
- lua_error(L);
- }
- sum += lua_tonumber(L, i);
- }
- lua_pushnumber(L, sum/n); /* first result */
- lua_pushnumber(L, sum); /* second result */
- return 2; /* number of results */
- }
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_checkstack (lua_State *L, int extra);</pre>
- <p>
- Ensures that there are at least <code>extra</code> free stack slots in the stack.
- It returns false if it cannot grow the stack to that size.
- This function never shrinks the stack;
- if the stack is already larger than the new size,
- it is left unchanged.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_close (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Destroys all objects in the given Lua state
- (calling the corresponding garbage-collection metamethods, if any)
- and frees all dynamic memory used by this state.
- On several platforms, you may not need to call this function,
- because all resources are naturally released when the host program ends.
- On the other hand, long-running programs,
- such as a daemon or a web server,
- might need to release states as soon as they are not needed,
- to avoid growing too large.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_concat"><code>lua_concat</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_concat (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Concatenates the <code>n</code> values at the top of the stack,
- pops them, and leaves the result at the top.
- If <code>n</code> is 1, the result is the single string on the stack
- (that is, the function does nothing);
- if <code>n</code> is 0, the result is the empty string.
- Concatenation is done following the usual semantics of Lua
- (see <a href="#2.5.4">§2.5.4</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_cpcall"><code>lua_cpcall</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_cpcall (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction func, void *ud);</pre>
- <p>
- Calls the C function <code>func</code> in protected mode.
- <code>func</code> starts with only one element in its stack,
- a light userdata containing <code>ud</code>.
- In case of errors,
- <a href="#lua_cpcall"><code>lua_cpcall</code></a> returns the same error codes as <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
- plus the error object on the top of the stack;
- otherwise, it returns zero, and does not change the stack.
- All values returned by <code>func</code> are discarded.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_createtable"><code>lua_createtable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_createtable (lua_State *L, int narr, int nrec);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
- The new table has space pre-allocated
- for <code>narr</code> array elements and <code>nrec</code> non-array elements.
- This pre-allocation is useful when you know exactly how many elements
- the table will have.
- Otherwise you can use the function <a href="#lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_dump (lua_State *L, lua_Writer writer, void *data);</pre>
- <p>
- Dumps a function as a binary chunk.
- Receives a Lua function on the top of the stack
- and produces a binary chunk that,
- if loaded again,
- results in a function equivalent to the one dumped.
- As it produces parts of the chunk,
- <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> calls function <code>writer</code> (see <a href="#lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a>)
- with the given <code>data</code>
- to write them.
- <p>
- The value returned is the error code returned by the last
- call to the writer;
- 0 means no errors.
- <p>
- This function does not pop the Lua function from the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_equal"><code>lua_equal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_equal (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the two values in acceptable indices <code>index1</code> and
- <code>index2</code> are equal,
- following the semantics of the Lua <code>==</code> operator
- (that is, may call metamethods).
- Otherwise returns 0.
- Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_error (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Generates a Lua error.
- The error message (which can actually be a Lua value of any type)
- must be on the stack top.
- This function does a long jump,
- and therefore never returns.
- (see <a href="#luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_gc (lua_State *L, int what, int data);</pre>
- <p>
- Controls the garbage collector.
- <p>
- This function performs several tasks,
- according to the value of the parameter <code>what</code>:
- <ul>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCSTOP</code>:</b>
- stops the garbage collector.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCRESTART</code>:</b>
- restarts the garbage collector.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCCOLLECT</code>:</b>
- performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNT</code>:</b>
- returns the current amount of memory (in Kbytes) in use by Lua.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNTB</code>:</b>
- returns the remainder of dividing the current amount of bytes of
- memory in use by Lua by 1024.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCSTEP</code>:</b>
- performs an incremental step of garbage collection.
- The step "size" is controlled by <code>data</code>
- (larger values mean more steps) in a non-specified way.
- If you want to control the step size
- you must experimentally tune the value of <code>data</code>.
- The function returns 1 if the step finished a
- garbage-collection cycle.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCSETPAUSE</code>:</b>
- sets <code>data</code>/100 as the new value
- for the <em>pause</em> of the collector (see <a href="#2.10">§2.10</a>).
- The function returns the previous value of the pause.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>LUA_GCSETSTEPMUL</code>:</b>
- sets <code>arg</code>/100 as the new value for the <em>step multiplier</em> of
- the collector (see <a href="#2.10">§2.10</a>).
- The function returns the previous value of the step multiplier.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getallocf"><code>lua_getallocf</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Alloc lua_getallocf (lua_State *L, void **ud);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the memory-allocation function of a given state.
- If <code>ud</code> is not <code>NULL</code>, Lua stores in <code>*ud</code> the
- opaque pointer passed to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getfenv"><code>lua_getfenv</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_getfenv (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the environment table of
- the value at the given index.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getfield"><code>lua_getfield</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_getfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>.
- As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
- for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getglobal"><code>lua_getglobal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_getglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the value of the global <code>name</code>.
- It is defined as a macro:
- <pre>
- #define lua_getglobal(L,s) lua_getfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, s)
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getmetatable"><code>lua_getmetatable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_getmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the metatable of the value at the given
- acceptable index.
- If the index is not valid,
- or if the value does not have a metatable,
- the function returns 0 and pushes nothing on the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_gettable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>
- and <code>k</code> is the value at the top of the stack.
- <p>
- This function pops the key from the stack
- (putting the resulting value in its place).
- As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
- for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gettop"><code>lua_gettop</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_gettop (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the index of the top element in the stack.
- Because indices start at 1,
- this result is equal to the number of elements in the stack
- (and so 0 means an empty stack).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_insert"><code>lua_insert</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_insert (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Moves the top element into the given valid index,
- shifting up the elements above this index to open space.
- Cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
- because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef ptrdiff_t lua_Integer;</pre>
- <p>
- The type used by the Lua API to represent integral values.
- <p>
- By default it is a <code>ptrdiff_t</code>,
- which is usually the largest integral type the machine handles
- "comfortably".
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index has type boolean,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_iscfunction"><code>lua_iscfunction</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_iscfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a C function,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isfunction"><code>lua_isfunction</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a function
- (either C or Lua), and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_islightuserdata"><code>lua_islightuserdata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_islightuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a light userdata,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isnil"><code>lua_isnil</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isnil (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is <b>nil</b>,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isnumber"><code>lua_isnumber</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isnumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a number
- or a string convertible to a number,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isstring"><code>lua_isstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isstring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a string
- or a number (which is always convertible to a string),
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_istable"><code>lua_istable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_istable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a table,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isthread"><code>lua_isthread</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isthread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a thread,
- and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_isuserdata"><code>lua_isuserdata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_isuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at the given acceptable index is a userdata
- (either full or light), and 0 otherwise.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_lessthan"><code>lua_lessthan</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_lessthan (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the value at acceptable index <code>index1</code> is smaller
- than the value at acceptable index <code>index2</code>,
- following the semantics of the Lua <code><</code> operator
- (that is, may call metamethods).
- Otherwise returns 0.
- Also returns 0 if any of the indices is non valid.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_load (lua_State *L,
- lua_Reader reader,
- void *data,
- const char *chunkname);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads a Lua chunk.
- If there are no errors,
- <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> pushes the compiled chunk as a Lua
- function on top of the stack.
- Otherwise, it pushes an error message.
- The return values of <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> are:
- <ul>
- <li><b>0:</b> no errors;</li>
- <li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRSYNTAX"><code>LUA_ERRSYNTAX</code></a>:</b>
- syntax error during pre-compilation;</li>
- <li><b><a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>:</b>
- memory allocation error.</li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- This function only loads a chunk;
- it does not run it.
- <p>
- <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> automatically detects whether the chunk is text or binary,
- and loads it accordingly (see program <code>luac</code>).
- <p>
- The <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> function uses a user-supplied <code>reader</code> function
- to read the chunk (see <a href="#lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a>).
- The <code>data</code> argument is an opaque value passed to the reader function.
- <p>
- The <code>chunkname</code> argument gives a name to the chunk,
- which is used for error messages and in debug information (see <a href="#3.8">§3.8</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_State *lua_newstate (lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a new, independent state.
- Returns <code>NULL</code> if cannot create the state
- (due to lack of memory).
- The argument <code>f</code> is the allocator function;
- Lua does all memory allocation for this state through this function.
- The second argument, <code>ud</code>, is an opaque pointer that Lua
- simply passes to the allocator in every call.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_newtable (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
- It is equivalent to <code>lua_createtable(L, 0, 0)</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_State *lua_newthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a new thread, pushes it on the stack,
- and returns a pointer to a <a href="#lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a> that represents this new thread.
- The new state returned by this function shares with the original state
- all global objects (such as tables),
- but has an independent execution stack.
- <p>
- There is no explicit function to close or to destroy a thread.
- Threads are subject to garbage collection,
- like any Lua object.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_newuserdata"><code>lua_newuserdata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void *lua_newuserdata (lua_State *L, size_t size);</pre>
- <p>
- This function allocates a new block of memory with the given size,
- pushes onto the stack a new full userdata with the block address,
- and returns this address.
- <p>
- Userdata represents C values in Lua.
- A <em>full userdata</em> represents a block of memory.
- It is an object (like a table):
- you must create it, it can have its own metatable,
- and you can detect when it is being collected.
- A full userdata is only equal to itself (under raw equality).
- <p>
- When Lua collects a full userdata with a <code>gc</code> metamethod,
- Lua calls the metamethod and marks the userdata as finalized.
- When this userdata is collected again then
- Lua frees its corresponding memory.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_next (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pops a key from the stack,
- and pushes a key-value pair from the table at the given index
- (the "next" pair after the given key).
- If there are no more elements in the table,
- then <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a> returns 0 (and pushes nothing).
- <p>
- A typical traversal looks like this:
- <pre>
- /* table is in the stack at index 't' */
- lua_pushnil(L); /* first key */
- while (lua_next(L, t) != 0) {
- /* uses 'key' (at index -2) and 'value' (at index -1) */
- printf("%s - %s\n",
- lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -2)),
- lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -1)));
- /* removes 'value'; keeps 'key' for next iteration */
- lua_pop(L, 1);
- }
- </pre>
- <p>
- While traversing a table,
- do not call <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> directly on a key,
- unless you know that the key is actually a string.
- Recall that <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> <em>changes</em>
- the value at the given index;
- this confuses the next call to <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef double lua_Number;</pre>
- <p>
- The type of numbers in Lua.
- By default, it is double, but that can be changed in <code>luaconf.h</code>.
- <p>
- Through the configuration file you can change
- Lua to operate with another type for numbers (e.g., float or long).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_objlen"><code>lua_objlen</code></a></h3>
- <pre>size_t lua_objlen (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the "length" of the value at the given acceptable index:
- for strings, this is the string length;
- for tables, this is the result of the length operator ('<code>#</code>');
- for userdata, this is the size of the block of memory allocated
- for the userdata;
- for other values, it is 0.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_pcall (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults, int errfunc);</pre>
- <p>
- Calls a function in protected mode.
- <p>
- Both <code>nargs</code> and <code>nresults</code> have the same meaning as
- in <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
- If there are no errors during the call,
- <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
- However, if there is any error,
- <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> catches it,
- pushes a single value on the stack (the error message),
- and returns an error code.
- Like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>,
- <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> always removes the function
- and its arguments from the stack.
- <p>
- If <code>errfunc</code> is 0,
- then the error message returned on the stack
- is exactly the original error message.
- Otherwise, <code>errfunc</code> is the stack index of an
- <em>error handler function</em>.
- (In the current implementation, this index cannot be a pseudo-index.)
- In case of runtime errors,
- this function will be called with the error message
- and its return value will be the message returned on the stack by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>.
- <p>
- Typically, the error handler function is used to add more debug
- information to the error message, such as a stack traceback.
- Such information cannot be gathered after the return of <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
- since by then the stack has unwound.
- <p>
- The <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> function returns 0 in case of success
- or one of the following error codes
- (defined in <code>lua.h</code>):
- <ul>
- <li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRRUN"><code>LUA_ERRRUN</code></a>:</b>
- a runtime error.
- </li>
- <li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>:</b>
- memory allocation error.
- For such errors, Lua does not call the error handler function.
- </li>
- <li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRERR"><code>LUA_ERRERR</code></a>:</b>
- error while running the error handler function.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pop (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Pops <code>n</code> elements from the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushboolean"><code>lua_pushboolean</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushboolean (lua_State *L, int b);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a boolean value with value <code>b</code> onto the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushcclosure (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction fn, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a new C closure onto the stack.
- <p>
- When a C function is created,
- it is possible to associate some values with it,
- thus creating a C closure (see <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>);
- these values are then accessible to the function whenever it is called.
- To associate values with a C function,
- first these values should be pushed onto the stack
- (when there are multiple values, the first value is pushed first).
- Then <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>
- is called to create and push the C function onto the stack,
- with the argument <code>n</code> telling how many values should be
- associated with the function.
- <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a> also pops these values from the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcfunction"><code>lua_pushcfunction</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushcfunction (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction f);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a C function onto the stack.
- This function receives a pointer to a C function
- and pushes onto the stack a Lua value of type <code>function</code> that,
- when called, invokes the corresponding C function.
- <p>
- Any function to be registered in Lua must
- follow the correct protocol to receive its parameters
- and return its results (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
- <p>
- <code>lua_pushcfunction</code> is defined as a macro:
- <pre>
- #define lua_pushcfunction(L,f) lua_pushcclosure(L,f,0)
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_pushfstring (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack a formatted string
- and returns a pointer to this string.
- It is similar to the C function <code>sprintf</code>,
- but has some important differences:
- <ul>
- <li>
- You do not have to allocate space for the result:
- the result is a Lua string and Lua takes care of memory allocation
- (and deallocation, through garbage collection).
- </li>
- <li>
- The conversion specifiers are quite restricted.
- There are no flags, widths, or precisions.
- The conversion specifiers can only be
- '<code>%%</code>' (inserts a '<code>%</code>' in the string),
- '<code>%s</code>' (inserts a zero-terminated string, with no size restrictions),
- '<code>%f</code>' (inserts a <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>),
- '<code>%p</code>' (inserts a pointer as a hexadecimal numeral),
- '<code>%d</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code>), and
- '<code>%c</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code> as a character).
- </li>
- </ul>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushinteger"><code>lua_pushinteger</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushinteger (lua_State *L, lua_Integer n);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a number with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlightuserdata"><code>lua_pushlightuserdata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushlightuserdata (lua_State *L, void *p);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a light userdata onto the stack.
- <p>
- Userdata represents C values in Lua.
- A <em>light userdata</em> represents a pointer.
- It is a value (like a number):
- you do not create it, it has no individual metatable,
- and it is not collected (as it was never created).
- A light userdata is equal to "any"
- light userdata with the same C address.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlstring"><code>lua_pushlstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushlstring (lua_State *L, const char *s, size_t len);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with size <code>len</code>
- onto the stack.
- Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the given string,
- so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
- the function returns.
- The string can contain embedded zeros.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnil"><code>lua_pushnil</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushnil (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a nil value onto the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnumber"><code>lua_pushnumber</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushnumber (lua_State *L, lua_Number n);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a number with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
- onto the stack.
- Lua makes (or reuses) an internal copy of the given string,
- so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
- the function returns.
- The string cannot contain embedded zeros;
- it is assumed to end at the first zero.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushthread"><code>lua_pushthread</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_pushthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes the thread represented by <code>L</code> onto the stack.
- Returns 1 if this thread is the main thread of its state.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvalue"><code>lua_pushvalue</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_pushvalue (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes a copy of the element at the given valid index
- onto the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvfstring"><code>lua_pushvfstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_pushvfstring (lua_State *L,
- const char *fmt,
- va_list argp);</pre>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>, except that it receives a <code>va_list</code>
- instead of a variable number of arguments.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_rawequal"><code>lua_rawequal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_rawequal (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns 1 if the two values in acceptable indices <code>index1</code> and
- <code>index2</code> are primitively equal
- (that is, without calling metamethods).
- Otherwise returns 0.
- Also returns 0 if any of the indices are non valid.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_rawget"><code>lua_rawget</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_rawget (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Similar to <a href="#lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a>, but does a raw access
- (i.e., without metamethods).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_rawgeti"><code>lua_rawgeti</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_rawgeti (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[n]</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>.
- The access is raw;
- that is, it does not invoke metamethods.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_rawset"><code>lua_rawset</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_rawset (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Similar to <a href="#lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a>, but does a raw assignment
- (i.e., without metamethods).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_rawseti"><code>lua_rawseti</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_rawseti (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Does the equivalent of <code>t[n] = v</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>
- and <code>v</code> is the value at the top of the stack,
- <p>
- This function pops the value from the stack.
- The assignment is raw;
- that is, it does not invoke metamethods.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef const char * (*lua_Reader) (lua_State *L,
- void *data,
- size_t *size);</pre>
- <p>
- The reader function used by <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
- Every time it needs another piece of the chunk,
- <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> calls the reader,
- passing along its <code>data</code> parameter.
- The reader must return a pointer to a block of memory
- with a new piece of the chunk
- and set <code>size</code> to the block size.
- The block must exist until the reader function is called again.
- To signal the end of the chunk, the reader must return <code>NULL</code>.
- The reader function may return pieces of any size greater than zero.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_register"><code>lua_register</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_register (lua_State *L,
- const char *name,
- lua_CFunction f);</pre>
- <p>
- Sets the C function <code>f</code> as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
- It is defined as a macro:
- <pre>
- #define lua_register(L,n,f) \
- (lua_pushcfunction(L, f), lua_setglobal(L, n))
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_remove"><code>lua_remove</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_remove (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Removes the element at the given valid index,
- shifting down the elements above this index to fill the gap.
- Cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
- because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_replace"><code>lua_replace</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_replace (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Moves the top element into the given position (and pops it),
- without shifting any element
- (therefore replacing the value at the given position).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_resume (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Starts and resumes a coroutine in a given thread.
- <p>
- To start a coroutine, you first create a new thread
- (see <a href="#lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a>);
- then you push onto its stack the main function plus any arguments;
- then you call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>,
- with <code>narg</code> being the number of arguments.
- This call returns when the coroutine suspends or finishes its execution.
- When it returns, the stack contains all values passed to <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>,
- or all values returned by the body function.
- <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> returns
- <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the coroutine yields,
- 0 if the coroutine finishes its execution
- without errors,
- or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>).
- In case of errors,
- the stack is not unwound,
- so you can use the debug API over it.
- The error message is on the top of the stack.
- To restart a coroutine, you put on its stack only the values to
- be passed as results from <code>yield</code>,
- and then call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setallocf"><code>lua_setallocf</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_setallocf (lua_State *L, lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
- <p>
- Changes the allocator function of a given state to <code>f</code>
- with user data <code>ud</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setfenv"><code>lua_setfenv</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_setfenv (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pops a table from the stack and sets it as
- the new environment for the value at the given index.
- If the value at the given index is
- neither a function nor a thread nor a userdata,
- <a href="#lua_setfenv"><code>lua_setfenv</code></a> returns 0.
- Otherwise it returns 1.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setfield"><code>lua_setfield</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_setfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
- <p>
- Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>
- and <code>v</code> is the value at the top of the stack,
- <p>
- This function pops the value from the stack.
- As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
- for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setglobal"><code>lua_setglobal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_setglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
- <p>
- Pops a value from the stack and
- sets it as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
- It is defined as a macro:
- <pre>
- #define lua_setglobal(L,s) lua_setfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, s)
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setmetatable"><code>lua_setmetatable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_setmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Pops a table from the stack and
- sets it as the new metatable for the value at the given
- acceptable index.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_settable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
- where <code>t</code> is the value at the given valid index <code>index</code>,
- <code>v</code> is the value at the top of the stack,
- and <code>k</code> is the value just below the top.
- <p>
- This function pops both the key and the value from the stack.
- As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
- for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.8">§2.8</a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_settop (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Accepts any acceptable index, or 0,
- and sets the stack top to this index.
- If the new top is larger than the old one,
- then the new elements are filled with <b>nil</b>.
- If <code>index</code> is 0, then all stack elements are removed.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef struct lua_State lua_State;</pre>
- <p>
- Opaque structure that keeps the whole state of a Lua interpreter.
- The Lua library is fully reentrant:
- it has no global variables.
- All information about a state is kept in this structure.
- <p>
- A pointer to this state must be passed as the first argument to
- every function in the library, except to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>,
- which creates a Lua state from scratch.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_status"><code>lua_status</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_status (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the status of the thread <code>L</code>.
- <p>
- The status can be 0 for a normal thread,
- an error code if the thread finished its execution with an error,
- or <a name="pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the thread is suspended.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_toboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index to a C boolean
- value (0 or 1).
- Like all tests in Lua,
- <a href="#lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a> returns 1 for any Lua value
- different from <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b>;
- otherwise it returns 0.
- It also returns 0 when called with a non-valid index.
- (If you want to accept only actual boolean values,
- use <a href="#lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a> to test the value's type.)
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tocfunction"><code>lua_tocfunction</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_CFunction lua_tocfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts a value at the given acceptable index to a C function.
- That value must be a C function;
- otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tointeger"><code>lua_tointeger</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Integer lua_tointeger (lua_State *L, int idx);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index
- to the signed integral type <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
- The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a number
- (see <a href="#2.2.1">§2.2.1</a>);
- otherwise, <a href="#lua_tointeger"><code>lua_tointeger</code></a> returns 0.
- <p>
- If the number is not an integer,
- it is truncated in some non-specified way.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_tolstring (lua_State *L, int index, size_t *len);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index to a C string.
- If <code>len</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
- it also sets <code>*len</code> with the string length.
- The Lua value must be a string or a number;
- otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
- If the value is a number,
- then <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> also
- <em>changes the actual value in the stack to a string</em>.
- (This change confuses <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>
- when <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> is applied to keys during a table traversal.)
- <p>
- <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> returns a fully aligned pointer
- to a string inside the Lua state.
- This string always has a zero ('<code>\0</code>')
- after its last character (as in C),
- but may contain other zeros in its body.
- Because Lua has garbage collection,
- there is no guarantee that the pointer returned by <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a>
- will be valid after the corresponding value is removed from the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tonumber"><code>lua_tonumber</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Number lua_tonumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the Lua value at the given acceptable index
- to the C type <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a> (see <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>).
- The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a number
- (see <a href="#2.2.1">§2.2.1</a>);
- otherwise, <a href="#lua_tonumber"><code>lua_tonumber</code></a> returns 0.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const void *lua_topointer (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the value at the given acceptable index to a generic
- C pointer (<code>void*</code>).
- The value may be a userdata, a table, a thread, or a function;
- otherwise, <a href="#lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a> returns <code>NULL</code>.
- Different objects will give different pointers.
- There is no way to convert the pointer back to its original value.
- <p>
- Typically this function is used only for debug information.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tostring"><code>lua_tostring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_tostring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> with <code>len</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_tothread"><code>lua_tothread</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_State *lua_tothread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Converts the value at the given acceptable index to a Lua thread
- (represented as <code>lua_State*</code>).
- This value must be a thread;
- otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_touserdata"><code>lua_touserdata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void *lua_touserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- If the value at the given acceptable index is a full userdata,
- returns its block address.
- If the value is a light userdata,
- returns its pointer.
- Otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_type (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the type of the value in the given acceptable index,
- or <code>LUA_TNONE</code> for a non-valid index
- (that is, an index to an "empty" stack position).
- The types returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a> are coded by the following constants
- defined in <code>lua.h</code>:
- <code>LUA_TNIL</code>,
- <code>LUA_TNUMBER</code>,
- <code>LUA_TBOOLEAN</code>,
- <code>LUA_TSTRING</code>,
- <code>LUA_TTABLE</code>,
- <code>LUA_TFUNCTION</code>,
- <code>LUA_TUSERDATA</code>,
- <code>LUA_TTHREAD</code>,
- and
- <code>LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_typename"><code>lua_typename</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_typename (lua_State *L, int tp);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the name of the type encoded by the value <code>tp</code>,
- which must be one the values returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef int (*lua_Writer) (lua_State *L,
- const void* p,
- size_t sz,
- void* ud);</pre>
- <p>
- The writer function used by <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
- Every time it produces another piece of chunk,
- <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> calls the writer,
- passing along the buffer to be written (<code>p</code>),
- its size (<code>sz</code>),
- and the <code>data</code> parameter supplied to <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
- <p>
- The writer returns an error code:
- 0 means no errors;
- any other value means an error and stops <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> from
- calling the writer again.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_xmove"><code>lua_xmove</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void lua_xmove (lua_State *from, lua_State *to, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Exchange values between different threads of the <em>same</em> global state.
- <p>
- This function pops <code>n</code> values from the stack <code>from</code>,
- and pushes them onto the stack <code>to</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_yield (lua_State *L, int nresults);</pre>
- <p>
- Yields a coroutine.
- <p>
- This function should only be called as the
- return expression of a C function, as follows:
- <pre>
- return lua_yield (L, nresults);
- </pre><p>
- When a C function calls <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a> in that way,
- the running coroutine suspends its execution,
- and the call to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> that started this coroutine returns.
- The parameter <code>nresults</code> is the number of values from the stack
- that are passed as results to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
- <h2>3.8 - <a name="3.8">The Debug Interface</a></h2>
- <p>
- Lua has no built-in debugging facilities.
- Instead, it offers a special interface
- by means of functions and <em>hooks</em>.
- This interface allows the construction of different
- kinds of debuggers, profilers, and other tools
- that need "inside information" from the interpreter.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef struct lua_Debug {
- int event;
- const char *name; /* (n) */
- const char *namewhat; /* (n) */
- const char *what; /* (S) */
- const char *source; /* (S) */
- int currentline; /* (l) */
- int nups; /* (u) number of upvalues */
- int linedefined; /* (S) */
- int lastlinedefined; /* (S) */
- char short_src[LUA_IDSIZE]; /* (S) */
- /* private part */
- <em>other fields</em>
- } lua_Debug;</pre>
- <p>
- A structure used to carry different pieces of
- information about an active function.
- <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> fills only the private part
- of this structure, for later use.
- To fill the other fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> with useful information,
- call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
- <p>
- The fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> have the following meaning:
- <ul>
- <li><b><code>source</code>:</b>
- If the function was defined in a string,
- then <code>source</code> is that string.
- If the function was defined in a file,
- then <code>source</code> starts with a '<code>@</code>' followed by the file name.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>short_src</code>:</b>
- a "printable" version of <code>source</code>, to be used in error messages.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>linedefined</code>:</b>
- the line number where the definition of the function starts.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>lastlinedefined</code>:</b>
- the line number where the definition of the function ends.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>what</code>:</b>
- the string <code>"Lua"</code> if the function is a Lua function,
- <code>"C"</code> if it is a C function,
- <code>"main"</code> if it is the main part of a chunk,
- and <code>"tail"</code> if it was a function that did a tail call.
- In the latter case,
- Lua has no other information about the function.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>currentline</code>:</b>
- the current line where the given function is executing.
- When no line information is available,
- <code>currentline</code> is set to -1.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>name</code>:</b>
- a reasonable name for the given function.
- Because functions in Lua are first-class values,
- they do not have a fixed name:
- some functions may be the value of multiple global variables,
- while others may be stored only in a table field.
- The <code>lua_getinfo</code> function checks how the function was
- called to find a suitable name.
- If it cannot find a name,
- then <code>name</code> is set to <code>NULL</code>.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>namewhat</code>:</b>
- explains the <code>name</code> field.
- The value of <code>namewhat</code> can be
- <code>"global"</code>, <code>"local"</code>, <code>"method"</code>,
- <code>"field"</code>, <code>"upvalue"</code>, or <code>""</code> (the empty string),
- according to how the function was called.
- (Lua uses the empty string when no other option seems to apply.)
- </li>
- <li><b><code>nups</code>:</b>
- the number of upvalues of the function.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gethook"><code>lua_gethook</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Hook lua_gethook (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the current hook function.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookcount"><code>lua_gethookcount</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_gethookcount (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the current hook count.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookmask"><code>lua_gethookmask</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_gethookmask (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the current hook mask.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_getinfo (lua_State *L, const char *what, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns information about a specific function or function invocation.
- <p>
- To get information about a function invocation,
- the parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
- filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
- given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
- <p>
- To get information about a function you push it onto the stack
- and start the <code>what</code> string with the character '<code>></code>'.
- (In that case,
- <code>lua_getinfo</code> pops the function in the top of the stack.)
- For instance, to know in which line a function <code>f</code> was defined,
- you can write the following code:
- <pre>
- lua_Debug ar;
- lua_getfield(L, LUA_GLOBALSINDEX, "f"); /* get global 'f' */
- lua_getinfo(L, ">S", &ar);
- printf("%d\n", ar.linedefined);
- </pre>
- <p>
- Each character in the string <code>what</code>
- selects some fields of the structure <code>ar</code> to be filled or
- a value to be pushed on the stack:
- <ul>
- <li><b>'<code>n</code>':</b> fills in the field <code>name</code> and <code>namewhat</code>;
- </li>
- <li><b>'<code>S</code>':</b>
- fills in the fields <code>source</code>, <code>short_src</code>,
- <code>linedefined</code>, <code>lastlinedefined</code>, and <code>what</code>;
- </li>
- <li><b>'<code>l</code>':</b> fills in the field <code>currentline</code>;
- </li>
- <li><b>'<code>u</code>':</b> fills in the field <code>nups</code>;
- </li>
- <li><b>'<code>f</code>':</b>
- pushes onto the stack the function that is
- running at the given level;
- </li>
- <li><b>'<code>L</code>':</b>
- pushes onto the stack a table whose indices are the
- numbers of the lines that are valid on the function.
- (A <em>valid line</em> is a line with some associated code,
- that is, a line where you can put a break point.
- Non-valid lines include empty lines and comments.)
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- This function returns 0 on error
- (for instance, an invalid option in <code>what</code>).
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_getlocal (lua_State *L, lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Gets information about a local variable of a given activation record.
- The parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
- filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
- given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
- The index <code>n</code> selects which local variable to inspect
- (1 is the first parameter or active local variable, and so on,
- until the last active local variable).
- <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a> pushes the variable's value onto the stack
- and returns its name.
- <p>
- Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parentheses)
- represent internal variables
- (loop control variables, temporaries, and C function locals).
- <p>
- Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
- when the index is greater than
- the number of active local variables.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_getstack (lua_State *L, int level, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
- <p>
- Get information about the interpreter runtime stack.
- <p>
- This function fills parts of a <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> structure with
- an identification of the <em>activation record</em>
- of the function executing at a given level.
- Level 0 is the current running function,
- whereas level <em>n+1</em> is the function that has called level <em>n</em>.
- When there are no errors, <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> returns 1;
- when called with a level greater than the stack depth,
- it returns 0.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_getupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Gets information about a closure's upvalue.
- (For Lua functions,
- upvalues are the external local variables that the function uses,
- and that are consequently included in its closure.)
- <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a> gets the index <code>n</code> of an upvalue,
- pushes the upvalue's value onto the stack,
- and returns its name.
- <code>funcindex</code> points to the closure in the stack.
- (Upvalues have no particular order,
- as they are active through the whole function.
- So, they are numbered in an arbitrary order.)
- <p>
- Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
- when the index is greater than the number of upvalues.
- For C functions, this function uses the empty string <code>""</code>
- as a name for all upvalues.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef void (*lua_Hook) (lua_State *L, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
- <p>
- Type for debugging hook functions.
- <p>
- Whenever a hook is called, its <code>ar</code> argument has its field
- <code>event</code> set to the specific event that triggered the hook.
- Lua identifies these events with the following constants:
- <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCALL"><code>LUA_HOOKCALL</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKRET"><code>LUA_HOOKRET</code></a>,
- <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKTAILRET"><code>LUA_HOOKTAILRET</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKLINE"><code>LUA_HOOKLINE</code></a>,
- and <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCOUNT"><code>LUA_HOOKCOUNT</code></a>.
- Moreover, for line events, the field <code>currentline</code> is also set.
- To get the value of any other field in <code>ar</code>,
- the hook must call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
- For return events, <code>event</code> may be <code>LUA_HOOKRET</code>,
- the normal value, or <code>LUA_HOOKTAILRET</code>.
- In the latter case, Lua is simulating a return from
- a function that did a tail call;
- in this case, it is useless to call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
- <p>
- While Lua is running a hook, it disables other calls to hooks.
- Therefore, if a hook calls back Lua to execute a function or a chunk,
- this execution occurs without any calls to hooks.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_sethook"><code>lua_sethook</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int lua_sethook (lua_State *L, lua_Hook f, int mask, int count);</pre>
- <p>
- Sets the debugging hook function.
- <p>
- Argument <code>f</code> is the hook function.
- <code>mask</code> specifies on which events the hook will be called:
- it is formed by a bitwise or of the constants
- <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCALL"><code>LUA_MASKCALL</code></a>,
- <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKRET"><code>LUA_MASKRET</code></a>,
- <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKLINE"><code>LUA_MASKLINE</code></a>,
- and <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCOUNT"><code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code></a>.
- The <code>count</code> argument is only meaningful when the mask
- includes <code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code>.
- For each event, the hook is called as explained below:
- <ul>
- <li><b>The call hook:</b> is called when the interpreter calls a function.
- The hook is called just after Lua enters the new function,
- before the function gets its arguments.
- </li>
- <li><b>The return hook:</b> is called when the interpreter returns from a function.
- The hook is called just before Lua leaves the function.
- You have no access to the values to be returned by the function.
- </li>
- <li><b>The line hook:</b> is called when the interpreter is about to
- start the execution of a new line of code,
- or when it jumps back in the code (even to the same line).
- (This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.)
- </li>
- <li><b>The count hook:</b> is called after the interpreter executes every
- <code>count</code> instructions.
- (This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.)
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- A hook is disabled by setting <code>mask</code> to zero.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_setlocal (lua_State *L, lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Sets the value of a local variable of a given activation record.
- Parameters <code>ar</code> and <code>n</code> are as in <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>
- (see <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>).
- <a href="#lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a> assigns the value at the top of the stack
- to the variable and returns its name.
- It also pops the value from the stack.
- <p>
- Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
- when the index is greater than
- the number of active local variables.
- <hr><h3><a name="lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *lua_setupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
- <p>
- Sets the value of a closure's upvalue.
- It assigns the value at the top of the stack
- to the upvalue and returns its name.
- It also pops the value from the stack.
- Parameters <code>funcindex</code> and <code>n</code> are as in the <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>
- (see <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>).
- <p>
- Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
- when the index is greater than the number of upvalues.
- <h1>4 - <a name="4">The Auxiliary Library</a></h1>
- <p>
- The <em>auxiliary library</em> provides several convenient functions
- to interface C with Lua.
- While the basic API provides the primitive functions for all
- interactions between C and Lua,
- the auxiliary library provides higher-level functions for some
- common tasks.
- <p>
- All functions from the auxiliary library
- are defined in header file <code>lauxlib.h</code> and
- have a prefix <code>luaL_</code>.
- <p>
- All functions in the auxiliary library are built on
- top of the basic API,
- and so they provide nothing that cannot be done with this API.
- <p>
- Several functions in the auxiliary library are used to
- check C function arguments.
- Their names are always <code>luaL_check*</code> or <code>luaL_opt*</code>.
- All of these functions raise an error if the check is not satisfied.
- Because the error message is formatted for arguments
- (e.g., "<code>bad argument #1</code>"),
- you should not use these functions for other stack values.
- <h2>4.1 - <a name="4.1">Functions and Types</a></h2>
- <p>
- Here we list all functions and types from the auxiliary library
- in alphabetical order.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_addchar"><code>luaL_addchar</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_addchar (luaL_Buffer *B, char c);</pre>
- <p>
- Adds the character <code>c</code> to the buffer <code>B</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_addlstring"><code>luaL_addlstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_addlstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s, size_t l);</pre>
- <p>
- Adds the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with length <code>l</code> to
- the buffer <code>B</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- The string may contain embedded zeros.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_addsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t n);</pre>
- <p>
- Adds to the buffer <code>B</code> (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>)
- a string of length <code>n</code> previously copied to the
- buffer area (see <a href="#luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_addstring"><code>luaL_addstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_addstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s);</pre>
- <p>
- Adds the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
- to the buffer <code>B</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- The string may not contain embedded zeros.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_addvalue (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
- <p>
- Adds the value at the top of the stack
- to the buffer <code>B</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- Pops the value.
- <p>
- This is the only function on string buffers that can (and must)
- be called with an extra element on the stack,
- which is the value to be added to the buffer.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_argcheck"><code>luaL_argcheck</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_argcheck (lua_State *L,
- int cond,
- int narg,
- const char *extramsg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether <code>cond</code> is true.
- If not, raises an error with the following message,
- where <code>func</code> is retrieved from the call stack:
- <pre>
- bad argument #<narg> to <func> (<extramsg>)
- </pre>
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_argerror"><code>luaL_argerror</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_argerror (lua_State *L, int narg, const char *extramsg);</pre>
- <p>
- Raises an error with the following message,
- where <code>func</code> is retrieved from the call stack:
- <pre>
- bad argument #<narg> to <func> (<extramsg>)
- </pre>
- <p>
- This function never returns,
- but it is an idiom to use it in C functions
- as <code>return luaL_argerror(<em>args</em>)</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef struct luaL_Buffer luaL_Buffer;</pre>
- <p>
- Type for a <em>string buffer</em>.
- <p>
- A string buffer allows C code to build Lua strings piecemeal.
- Its pattern of use is as follows:
- <ul>
- <li>First you declare a variable <code>b</code> of type <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>.</li>
- <li>Then you initialize it with a call <code>luaL_buffinit(L, &b)</code>.</li>
- <li>
- Then you add string pieces to the buffer calling any of
- the <code>luaL_add*</code> functions.
- </li>
- <li>
- You finish by calling <code>luaL_pushresult(&b)</code>.
- This call leaves the final string on the top of the stack.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- During its normal operation,
- a string buffer uses a variable number of stack slots.
- So, while using a buffer, you cannot assume that you know where
- the top of the stack is.
- You can use the stack between successive calls to buffer operations
- as long as that use is balanced;
- that is,
- when you call a buffer operation,
- the stack is at the same level
- it was immediately after the previous buffer operation.
- (The only exception to this rule is <a href="#luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a>.)
- After calling <a href="#luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a> the stack is back to its
- level when the buffer was initialized,
- plus the final string on its top.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffinit"><code>luaL_buffinit</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_buffinit (lua_State *L, luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
- <p>
- Initializes a buffer <code>B</code>.
- This function does not allocate any space;
- the buffer must be declared as a variable
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_callmeta"><code>luaL_callmeta</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_callmeta (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
- <p>
- Calls a metamethod.
- <p>
- If the object at index <code>obj</code> has a metatable and this
- metatable has a field <code>e</code>,
- this function calls this field and passes the object as its only argument.
- In this case this function returns 1 and pushes onto the
- stack the value returned by the call.
- If there is no metatable or no metamethod,
- this function returns 0 (without pushing any value on the stack).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkany"><code>luaL_checkany</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_checkany (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function has an argument
- of any type (including <b>nil</b>) at position <code>narg</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkint"><code>luaL_checkint</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_checkint (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number
- and returns this number cast to an <code>int</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkinteger"><code>luaL_checkinteger</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Integer luaL_checkinteger (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number
- and returns this number cast to a <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checklong"><code>luaL_checklong</code></a></h3>
- <pre>long luaL_checklong (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number
- and returns this number cast to a <code>long</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checklstring"><code>luaL_checklstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_checklstring (lua_State *L, int narg, size_t *l);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a string
- and returns this string;
- if <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code> fills <code>*l</code>
- with the string's length.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checknumber"><code>luaL_checknumber</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Number luaL_checknumber (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number
- and returns this number.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkoption"><code>luaL_checkoption</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_checkoption (lua_State *L,
- int narg,
- const char *def,
- const char *const lst[]);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a string and
- searches for this string in the array <code>lst</code>
- (which must be NULL-terminated).
- Returns the index in the array where the string was found.
- Raises an error if the argument is not a string or
- if the string cannot be found.
- <p>
- If <code>def</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
- the function uses <code>def</code> as a default value when
- there is no argument <code>narg</code> or if this argument is <b>nil</b>.
- <p>
- This is a useful function for mapping strings to C enums.
- (The usual convention in Lua libraries is
- to use strings instead of numbers to select options.)
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstack"><code>luaL_checkstack</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_checkstack (lua_State *L, int sz, const char *msg);</pre>
- <p>
- Grows the stack size to <code>top + sz</code> elements,
- raising an error if the stack cannot grow to that size.
- <code>msg</code> is an additional text to go into the error message.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstring"><code>luaL_checkstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_checkstring (lua_State *L, int narg);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a string
- and returns this string.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checktype"><code>luaL_checktype</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_checktype (lua_State *L, int narg, int t);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> has type <code>t</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkudata"><code>luaL_checkudata</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void *luaL_checkudata (lua_State *L, int narg, const char *tname);</pre>
- <p>
- Checks whether the function argument <code>narg</code> is a userdata
- of the type <code>tname</code> (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_dofile"><code>luaL_dofile</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_dofile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads and runs the given file.
- It is defined as the following macro:
- <pre>
- (luaL_loadfile(L, filename) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
- </pre><p>
- It returns 0 if there are no errors
- or 1 in case of errors.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_dostring"><code>luaL_dostring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_dostring (lua_State *L, const char *str);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads and runs the given string.
- It is defined as the following macro:
- <pre>
- (luaL_loadstring(L, str) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
- </pre><p>
- It returns 0 if there are no errors
- or 1 in case of errors.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_error (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
- <p>
- Raises an error.
- The error message format is given by <code>fmt</code>
- plus any extra arguments,
- following the same rules of <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>.
- It also adds at the beginning of the message the file name and
- the line number where the error occurred,
- if this information is available.
- <p>
- This function never returns,
- but it is an idiom to use it in C functions
- as <code>return luaL_error(<em>args</em>)</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetafield"><code>luaL_getmetafield</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_getmetafield (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the field <code>e</code> from the metatable
- of the object at index <code>obj</code>.
- If the object does not have a metatable,
- or if the metatable does not have this field,
- returns 0 and pushes nothing.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetatable"><code>luaL_getmetatable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_getmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack the metatable associated with name <code>tname</code>
- in the registry (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_gsub"><code>luaL_gsub</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_gsub (lua_State *L,
- const char *s,
- const char *p,
- const char *r);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a copy of string <code>s</code> by replacing
- any occurrence of the string <code>p</code>
- with the string <code>r</code>.
- Pushes the resulting string on the stack and returns it.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadbuffer"><code>luaL_loadbuffer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_loadbuffer (lua_State *L,
- const char *buff,
- size_t sz,
- const char *name);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads a buffer as a Lua chunk.
- This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the
- buffer pointed to by <code>buff</code> with size <code>sz</code>.
- <p>
- This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
- <code>name</code> is the chunk name,
- used for debug information and error messages.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadfile"><code>luaL_loadfile</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_loadfile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads a file as a Lua chunk.
- This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the file
- named <code>filename</code>.
- If <code>filename</code> is <code>NULL</code>,
- then it loads from the standard input.
- The first line in the file is ignored if it starts with a <code>#</code>.
- <p>
- This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>,
- but it has an extra error code <a name="pdf-LUA_ERRFILE"><code>LUA_ERRFILE</code></a>
- if it cannot open/read the file.
- <p>
- As <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
- it does not run it.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadstring"><code>luaL_loadstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_loadstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
- <p>
- Loads a string as a Lua chunk.
- This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in
- the zero-terminated string <code>s</code>.
- <p>
- This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
- <p>
- Also as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
- it does not run it.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_newmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
- <p>
- If the registry already has the key <code>tname</code>,
- returns 0.
- Otherwise,
- creates a new table to be used as a metatable for userdata,
- adds it to the registry with key <code>tname</code>,
- and returns 1.
- <p>
- In both cases pushes onto the stack the final value associated
- with <code>tname</code> in the registry.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_State *luaL_newstate (void);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates a new Lua state.
- It calls <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a> with an
- allocator based on the standard C <code>realloc</code> function
- and then sets a panic function (see <a href="#lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a>) that prints
- an error message to the standard error output in case of fatal
- errors.
- <p>
- Returns the new state,
- or <code>NULL</code> if there is a memory allocation error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_openlibs (lua_State *L);</pre>
- <p>
- Opens all standard Lua libraries into the given state.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optint"><code>luaL_optint</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_optint (lua_State *L, int narg, int d);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number,
- returns this number cast to an <code>int</code>.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optinteger"><code>luaL_optinteger</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Integer luaL_optinteger (lua_State *L,
- int narg,
- lua_Integer d);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number,
- returns this number cast to a <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optlong"><code>luaL_optlong</code></a></h3>
- <pre>long luaL_optlong (lua_State *L, int narg, long d);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number,
- returns this number cast to a <code>long</code>.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optlstring"><code>luaL_optlstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_optlstring (lua_State *L,
- int narg,
- const char *d,
- size_t *l);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a string,
- returns this string.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <p>
- If <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
- fills the position <code>*l</code> with the results's length.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optnumber"><code>luaL_optnumber</code></a></h3>
- <pre>lua_Number luaL_optnumber (lua_State *L, int narg, lua_Number d);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a number,
- returns this number.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_optstring"><code>luaL_optstring</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_optstring (lua_State *L,
- int narg,
- const char *d);</pre>
- <p>
- If the function argument <code>narg</code> is a string,
- returns this string.
- If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
- returns <code>d</code>.
- Otherwise, raises an error.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a></h3>
- <pre>char *luaL_prepbuffer (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns an address to a space of size <a name="pdf-LUAL_BUFFERSIZE"><code>LUAL_BUFFERSIZE</code></a>
- where you can copy a string to be added to buffer <code>B</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
- After copying the string into this space you must call
- <a href="#luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a> with the size of the string to actually add
- it to the buffer.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_pushresult (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
- <p>
- Finishes the use of buffer <code>B</code> leaving the final string on
- the top of the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_ref (lua_State *L, int t);</pre>
- <p>
- Creates and returns a <em>reference</em>,
- in the table at index <code>t</code>,
- for the object at the top of the stack (and pops the object).
- <p>
- A reference is a unique integer key.
- As long as you do not manually add integer keys into table <code>t</code>,
- <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> ensures the uniqueness of the key it returns.
- You can retrieve an object referred by reference <code>r</code>
- by calling <code>lua_rawgeti(L, t, r)</code>.
- Function <a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> frees a reference and its associated object.
- <p>
- If the object at the top of the stack is <b>nil</b>,
- <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> returns the constant <a name="pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>.
- The constant <a name="pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> is guaranteed to be different
- from any reference returned by <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a></h3>
- <pre>typedef struct luaL_Reg {
- const char *name;
- lua_CFunction func;
- } luaL_Reg;</pre>
- <p>
- Type for arrays of functions to be registered by
- <a href="#luaL_register"><code>luaL_register</code></a>.
- <code>name</code> is the function name and <code>func</code> is a pointer to
- the function.
- Any array of <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a> must end with an sentinel entry
- in which both <code>name</code> and <code>func</code> are <code>NULL</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_register"><code>luaL_register</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_register (lua_State *L,
- const char *libname,
- const luaL_Reg *l);</pre>
- <p>
- Opens a library.
- <p>
- When called with <code>libname</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>,
- it simply registers all functions in the list <code>l</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a>) into the table on the top of the stack.
- <p>
- When called with a non-null <code>libname</code>,
- <code>luaL_register</code> creates a new table <code>t</code>,
- sets it as the value of the global variable <code>libname</code>,
- sets it as the value of <code>package.loaded[libname]</code>,
- and registers on it all functions in the list <code>l</code>.
- If there is a table in <code>package.loaded[libname]</code> or in
- variable <code>libname</code>,
- reuses this table instead of creating a new one.
- <p>
- In any case the function leaves the table
- on the top of the stack.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_typename"><code>luaL_typename</code></a></h3>
- <pre>const char *luaL_typename (lua_State *L, int idx);</pre>
- <p>
- Returns the name of the type of the value at index <code>idx</code>.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_typerror"><code>luaL_typerror</code></a></h3>
- <pre>int luaL_typerror (lua_State *L, int narg, const char *tname);</pre>
- <p>
- Generates an error with a message like the following:
- <pre>
- <em>location</em>: bad argument <em>narg</em> to '<em>func</em>' (<em>tname</em> expected, got <em>rt</em>)
- </pre><p>
- where <code><em>location</em></code> is produced by <a href="#luaL_where"><code>luaL_where</code></a>,
- <code><em>func</em></code> is the name of the current function,
- and <code><em>rt</em></code> is the type name of the actual argument.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_unref (lua_State *L, int t, int ref);</pre>
- <p>
- Releases reference <code>ref</code> from the table at index <code>t</code>
- (see <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>).
- The entry is removed from the table,
- so that the referred object can be collected.
- The reference <code>ref</code> is also freed to be used again.
- <p>
- If <code>ref</code> is <a href="#pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> or <a href="#pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>,
- <a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> does nothing.
- <hr><h3><a name="luaL_where"><code>luaL_where</code></a></h3>
- <pre>void luaL_where (lua_State *L, int lvl);</pre>
- <p>
- Pushes onto the stack a string identifying the current position
- of the control at level <code>lvl</code> in the call stack.
- Typically this string has the following format:
- <pre>
- <em>chunkname</em>:<em>currentline</em>:
- </pre><p>
- Level 0 is the running function,
- level 1 is the function that called the running function,
- etc.
- <p>
- This function is used to build a prefix for error messages.
- <h1>5 - <a name="5">Standard Libraries</a></h1>
- <p>
- The standard Lua libraries provide useful functions
- that are implemented directly through the C API.
- Some of these functions provide essential services to the language
- (e.g., <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a>);
- others provide access to "outside" services (e.g., I/O);
- and others could be implemented in Lua itself,
- but are quite useful or have critical performance requirements that
- deserve an implementation in C (e.g., <code>sort</code>).
- <p>
- All libraries are implemented through the official C API
- and are provided as separate C modules.
- Currently, Lua has the following standard libraries:
- <ul>
- <li>basic library;</li>
- <li>package library;</li>
- <li>string manipulation;</li>
- <li>table manipulation;</li>
- <li>mathematical functions (sin, log, etc.);</li>
- <li>input and output;</li>
- <li>operating system facilities;</li>
- <li>debug facilities.</li>
- </ul><p>
- Except for the basic and package libraries,
- each library provides all its functions as fields of a global table
- or as methods of its objects.
- <p>
- To have access to these libraries,
- the C host program should call the <a href="#luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a> function,
- which opens all standard libraries.
- Alternatively,
- it can open them individually by calling
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_base"><code>luaopen_base</code></a> (for the basic library),
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_package"><code>luaopen_package</code></a> (for the package library),
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_string"><code>luaopen_string</code></a> (for the string library),
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_table"><code>luaopen_table</code></a> (for the table library),
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_math"><code>luaopen_math</code></a> (for the mathematical library),
- <a name="pdf-luaopen_io"><code>luaopen_io</code></a> (for the I/O and the Operating System libraries),
- and <a name="pdf-luaopen_debug"><code>luaopen_debug</code></a> (for the debug library).
- These functions are declared in <a name="pdf-lualib.h"><code>lualib.h</code></a>
- and should not be called directly:
- you must call them like any other Lua C function,
- e.g., by using <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
- <h2>5.1 - <a name="5.1">Basic Functions</a></h2>
- <p>
- The basic library provides some core functions to Lua.
- If you do not include this library in your application,
- you should check carefully whether you need to provide
- implementations for some of its facilities.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-assert"><code>assert (v [, message])</code></a></h3>
- Issues an error when
- the value of its argument <code>v</code> is false (i.e., <b>nil</b> or <b>false</b>);
- otherwise, returns all its arguments.
- <code>message</code> is an error message;
- when absent, it defaults to "assertion failed!"
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage (opt [, arg])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function is a generic interface to the garbage collector.
- It performs different functions according to its first argument, <code>opt</code>:
- <ul>
- <li><b>"stop":</b>
- stops the garbage collector.
- </li>
- <li><b>"restart":</b>
- restarts the garbage collector.
- </li>
- <li><b>"collect":</b>
- performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
- </li>
- <li><b>"count":</b>
- returns the total memory in use by Lua (in Kbytes).
- </li>
- <li><b>"step":</b>
- performs a garbage-collection step.
- The step "size" is controlled by <code>arg</code>
- (larger values mean more steps) in a non-specified way.
- If you want to control the step size
- you must experimentally tune the value of <code>arg</code>.
- Returns <b>true</b> if the step finished a collection cycle.
- </li>
- <li><b>"setpause":</b>
- sets <code>arg</code>/100 as the new value for the <em>pause</em> of
- the collector (see <a href="#2.10">§2.10</a>).
- </li>
- <li><b>"setstepmul":</b>
- sets <code>arg</code>/100 as the new value for the <em>step multiplier</em> of
- the collector (see <a href="#2.10">§2.10</a>).
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-dofile"><code>dofile (filename)</code></a></h3>
- Opens the named file and executes its contents as a Lua chunk.
- When called without arguments,
- <code>dofile</code> executes the contents of the standard input (<code>stdin</code>).
- Returns all values returned by the chunk.
- In case of errors, <code>dofile</code> propagates the error
- to its caller (that is, <code>dofile</code> does not run in protected mode).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-error"><code>error (message [, level])</code></a></h3>
- Terminates the last protected function called
- and returns <code>message</code> as the error message.
- Function <code>error</code> never returns.
- <p>
- Usually, <code>error</code> adds some information about the error position
- at the beginning of the message.
- The <code>level</code> argument specifies how to get the error position.
- With level 1 (the default), the error position is where the
- <code>error</code> function was called.
- Level 2 points the error to where the function
- that called <code>error</code> was called; and so on.
- Passing a level 0 avoids the addition of error position information
- to the message.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a></h3>
- A global variable (not a function) that
- holds the global environment (that is, <code>_G._G = _G</code>).
- Lua itself does not use this variable;
- changing its value does not affect any environment,
- nor vice-versa.
- (Use <a href="#pdf-setfenv"><code>setfenv</code></a> to change environments.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-getfenv"><code>getfenv (f)</code></a></h3>
- Returns the current environment in use by the function.
- <code>f</code> can be a Lua function or a number
- that specifies the function at that stack level:
- Level 1 is the function calling <code>getfenv</code>.
- If the given function is not a Lua function,
- or if <code>f</code> is 0,
- <code>getfenv</code> returns the global environment.
- The default for <code>f</code> is 1.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable (object)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- If <code>object</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>.
- Otherwise,
- if the object's metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field,
- returns the associated value.
- Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given object.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs (t)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns three values: an iterator function, the table <code>t</code>, and 0,
- so that the construction
- <pre>
- for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- will iterate over the pairs (<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ···,
- up to the first integer key absent from the table.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-load"><code>load (func [, chunkname])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Loads a chunk using function <code>func</code> to get its pieces.
- Each call to <code>func</code> must return a string that concatenates
- with previous results.
- A return of <b>nil</b> (or no value) signals the end of the chunk.
- <p>
- If there are no errors,
- returns the compiled chunk as a function;
- otherwise, returns <b>nil</b> plus the error message.
- The environment of the returned function is the global environment.
- <p>
- <code>chunkname</code> is used as the chunk name for error messages
- and debug information.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile ([filename])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Similar to <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
- but gets the chunk from file <code>filename</code>
- or from the standard input,
- if no file name is given.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-loadstring"><code>loadstring (string [, chunkname])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Similar to <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
- but gets the chunk from the given string.
- <p>
- To load and run a given string, use the idiom
- <pre>
- assert(loadstring(s))()
- </pre>
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-next"><code>next (table [, index])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Allows a program to traverse all fields of a table.
- Its first argument is a table and its second argument
- is an index in this table.
- <code>next</code> returns the next index of the table
- and its associated value.
- When called with <b>nil</b> as its second argument,
- <code>next</code> returns an initial index
- and its associated value.
- When called with the last index,
- or with <b>nil</b> in an empty table,
- <code>next</code> returns <b>nil</b>.
- If the second argument is absent, then it is interpreted as <b>nil</b>.
- In particular,
- you can use <code>next(t)</code> to check whether a table is empty.
- <p>
- The order in which the indices are enumerated is not specified,
- <em>even for numeric indices</em>.
- (To traverse a table in numeric order,
- use a numerical <b>for</b> or the <a href="#pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs</code></a> function.)
- <p>
- The behavior of <code>next</code> is <em>undefined</em> if,
- during the traversal,
- you assign any value to a non-existent field in the table.
- You may however modify existing fields.
- In particular, you may clear existing fields.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-pairs"><code>pairs (t)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns three values: the <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> function, the table <code>t</code>, and <b>nil</b>,
- so that the construction
- <pre>
- for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>.
- <p>
- See function <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> for the caveats of modifying
- the table during its traversal.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-pcall"><code>pcall (f, arg1, ···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Calls function <code>f</code> with
- the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>.
- This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated;
- instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error
- and returns a status code.
- Its first result is the status code (a boolean),
- which is true if the call succeeds without errors.
- In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call,
- after this first result.
- In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error message.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3>
- Receives any number of arguments,
- and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>,
- using the <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> function to convert them to strings.
- <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output,
- but only as a quick way to show a value,
- typically for debugging.
- For formatted output, use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawequal"><code>rawequal (v1, v2)</code></a></h3>
- Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>,
- without invoking any metamethod.
- Returns a boolean.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawget"><code>rawget (table, index)</code></a></h3>
- Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>,
- without invoking any metamethod.
- <code>table</code> must be a table;
- <code>index</code> may be any value.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawset"><code>rawset (table, index, value)</code></a></h3>
- Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>,
- without invoking any metamethod.
- <code>table</code> must be a table,
- <code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b>,
- and <code>value</code> any Lua value.
- <p>
- This function returns <code>table</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-select"><code>select (index, ···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- If <code>index</code> is a number,
- returns all arguments after argument number <code>index</code>.
- Otherwise, <code>index</code> must be the string <code>"#"</code>,
- and <code>select</code> returns the total number of extra arguments it received.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-setfenv"><code>setfenv (f, table)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the environment to be used by the given function.
- <code>f</code> can be a Lua function or a number
- that specifies the function at that stack level:
- Level 1 is the function calling <code>setfenv</code>.
- <code>setfenv</code> returns the given function.
- <p>
- As a special case, when <code>f</code> is 0 <code>setfenv</code> changes
- the environment of the running thread.
- In this case, <code>setfenv</code> returns no values.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the metatable for the given table.
- (You cannot change the metatable of other types from Lua, only from C.)
- If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>,
- removes the metatable of the given table.
- If the original metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field,
- raises an error.
- <p>
- This function returns <code>table</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-tonumber"><code>tonumber (e [, base])</code></a></h3>
- Tries to convert its argument to a number.
- If the argument is already a number or a string convertible
- to a number, then <code>tonumber</code> returns this number;
- otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>.
- <p>
- An optional argument specifies the base to interpret the numeral.
- The base may be any integer between 2 and 36, inclusive.
- In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case)
- represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth,
- with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35.
- In base 10 (the default), the number may have a decimal part,
- as well as an optional exponent part (see <a href="#2.1">§2.1</a>).
- In other bases, only unsigned integers are accepted.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-tostring"><code>tostring (e)</code></a></h3>
- Receives an argument of any type and
- converts it to a string in a reasonable format.
- For complete control of how numbers are converted,
- use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
- <p>
- If the metatable of <code>e</code> has a <code>"__tostring"</code> field,
- then <code>tostring</code> calls the corresponding value
- with <code>e</code> as argument,
- and uses the result of the call as its result.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-type"><code>type (v)</code></a></h3>
- Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string.
- The possible results of this function are
- "<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>),
- "<code>number</code>",
- "<code>string</code>",
- "<code>boolean</code>",
- "<code>table</code>",
- "<code>function</code>",
- "<code>thread</code>",
- and "<code>userdata</code>".
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-unpack"><code>unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
- Returns the elements from the given table.
- This function is equivalent to
- <pre>
- return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j]
- </pre><p>
- except that the above code can be written only for a fixed number
- of elements.
- By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is the length of the list,
- as defined by the length operator (see <a href="#2.5.5">§2.5.5</a>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-_VERSION"><code>_VERSION</code></a></h3>
- A global variable (not a function) that
- holds a string containing the current interpreter version.
- The current contents of this variable is "<code>Lua 5.1</code>".
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall (f, err)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function is similar to <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a>,
- except that you can set a new error handler.
- <p>
- <code>xpcall</code> calls function <code>f</code> in protected mode,
- using <code>err</code> as the error handler.
- Any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated;
- instead, <code>xpcall</code> catches the error,
- calls the <code>err</code> function with the original error object,
- and returns a status code.
- Its first result is the status code (a boolean),
- which is true if the call succeeds without errors.
- In this case, <code>xpcall</code> also returns all results from the call,
- after this first result.
- In case of any error,
- <code>xpcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the result from <code>err</code>.
- <h2>5.2 - <a name="5.2">Coroutine Manipulation</a></h2>
- <p>
- The operations related to coroutines comprise a sub-library of
- the basic library and come inside the table <a name="pdf-coroutine"><code>coroutine</code></a>.
- See <a href="#2.11">§2.11</a> for a general description of coroutines.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create (f)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>.
- <code>f</code> must be a Lua function.
- Returns this new coroutine,
- an object with type <code>"thread"</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume (co [, val1, ···])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Starts or continues the execution of coroutine <code>co</code>.
- The first time you resume a coroutine,
- it starts running its body.
- The values <code>val1</code>, ··· are passed
- as the arguments to the body function.
- If the coroutine has yielded,
- <code>resume</code> restarts it;
- the values <code>val1</code>, ··· are passed
- as the results from the yield.
- <p>
- If the coroutine runs without any errors,
- <code>resume</code> returns <b>true</b> plus any values passed to <code>yield</code>
- (if the coroutine yields) or any values returned by the body function
- (if the coroutine terminates).
- If there is any error,
- <code>resume</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error message.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.running"><code>coroutine.running ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the running coroutine,
- or <b>nil</b> when called by the main thread.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.status"><code>coroutine.status (co)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the status of coroutine <code>co</code>, as a string:
- <code>"running"</code>,
- if the coroutine is running (that is, it called <code>status</code>);
- <code>"suspended"</code>, if the coroutine is suspended in a call to <code>yield</code>,
- or if it has not started running yet;
- <code>"normal"</code> if the coroutine is active but not running
- (that is, it has resumed another coroutine);
- and <code>"dead"</code> if the coroutine has finished its body function,
- or if it has stopped with an error.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap (f)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>.
- <code>f</code> must be a Lua function.
- Returns a function that resumes the coroutine each time it is called.
- Any arguments passed to the function behave as the
- extra arguments to <code>resume</code>.
- Returns the same values returned by <code>resume</code>,
- except the first boolean.
- In case of error, propagates the error.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield (···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Suspends the execution of the calling coroutine.
- The coroutine cannot be running a C function,
- a metamethod, or an iterator.
- Any arguments to <code>yield</code> are passed as extra results to <code>resume</code>.
- <h2>5.3 - <a name="5.3">Modules</a></h2>
- <p>
- The package library provides basic
- facilities for loading and building modules in Lua.
- It exports two of its functions directly in the global environment:
- <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-module"><code>module</code></a>.
- Everything else is exported in a table <a name="pdf-package"><code>package</code></a>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-module"><code>module (name [, ···])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Creates a module.
- If there is a table in <code>package.loaded[name]</code>,
- this table is the module.
- Otherwise, if there is a global table <code>t</code> with the given name,
- this table is the module.
- Otherwise creates a new table <code>t</code> and
- sets it as the value of the global <code>name</code> and
- the value of <code>package.loaded[name]</code>.
- This function also initializes <code>t._NAME</code> with the given name,
- <code>t._M</code> with the module (<code>t</code> itself),
- and <code>t._PACKAGE</code> with the package name
- (the full module name minus last component; see below).
- Finally, <code>module</code> sets <code>t</code> as the new environment
- of the current function and the new value of <code>package.loaded[name]</code>,
- so that <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> returns <code>t</code>.
- <p>
- If <code>name</code> is a compound name
- (that is, one with components separated by dots),
- <code>module</code> creates (or reuses, if they already exist)
- tables for each component.
- For instance, if <code>name</code> is <code>a.b.c</code>,
- then <code>module</code> stores the module table in field <code>c</code> of
- field <code>b</code> of global <code>a</code>.
- <p>
- This function may receive optional <em>options</em> after
- the module name,
- where each option is a function to be applied over the module.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-require"><code>require (modname)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Loads the given module.
- The function starts by looking into the <a href="#pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a> table
- to determine whether <code>modname</code> is already loaded.
- If it is, then <code>require</code> returns the value stored
- at <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
- Otherwise, it tries to find a <em>loader</em> for the module.
- <p>
- To find a loader,
- first <code>require</code> queries <code>package.preload[modname]</code>.
- If it has a value,
- this value (which should be a function) is the loader.
- Otherwise <code>require</code> searches for a Lua loader using the
- path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>.
- If that also fails, it searches for a C loader using the
- path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>.
- If that also fails,
- it tries an <em>all-in-one</em> loader (see below).
- <p>
- When loading a C library,
- <code>require</code> first uses a dynamic link facility to link the
- application with the library.
- Then it tries to find a C function inside this library to
- be used as the loader.
- The name of this C function is the string "<code>luaopen_</code>"
- concatenated with a copy of the module name where each dot
- is replaced by an underscore.
- Moreover, if the module name has a hyphen,
- its prefix up to (and including) the first hyphen is removed.
- For instance, if the module name is <code>a.v1-b.c</code>,
- the function name will be <code>luaopen_b_c</code>.
- <p>
- If <code>require</code> finds neither a Lua library nor a
- C library for a module,
- it calls the <em>all-in-one loader</em>.
- This loader searches the C path for a library for
- the root name of the given module.
- For instance, when requiring <code>a.b.c</code>,
- it will search for a C library for <code>a</code>.
- If found, it looks into it for an open function for
- the submodule;
- in our example, that would be <code>luaopen_a_b_c</code>.
- With this facility, a package can pack several C submodules
- into one single library,
- with each submodule keeping its original open function.
- <p>
- Once a loader is found,
- <code>require</code> calls the loader with a single argument, <code>modname</code>.
- If the loader returns any value,
- <code>require</code> assigns the returned value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
- If the loader returns no value and
- has not assigned any value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>,
- then <code>require</code> assigns <b>true</b> to this entry.
- In any case, <code>require</code> returns the
- final value of <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
- <p>
- If there is any error loading or running the module,
- or if it cannot find any loader for the module,
- then <code>require</code> signals an error.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- The path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to search for a C loader.
- <p>
- Lua initializes the C path <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> in the same way
- it initializes the Lua path <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>,
- using the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_CPATH"><code>LUA_CPATH</code></a>
- (plus another default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- A table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to control which
- modules are already loaded.
- When you require a module <code>modname</code> and
- <code>package.loaded[modname]</code> is not false,
- <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> simply returns the value stored there.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loadlib"><code>package.loadlib (libname, funcname)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Dynamically links the host program with the C library <code>libname</code>.
- Inside this library, looks for a function <code>funcname</code>
- and returns this function as a C function.
- (So, <code>funcname</code> must follow the protocol (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>)).
- <p>
- This is a low-level function.
- It completely bypasses the package and module system.
- Unlike <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>,
- it does not perform any path searching and
- does not automatically adds extensions.
- <code>libname</code> must be the complete file name of the C library,
- including if necessary a path and extension.
- <code>funcname</code> must be the exact name exported by the C library
- (which may depend on the C compiler and linker used).
- <p>
- This function is not supported by ANSI C.
- As such, it is only available on some platforms
- (Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, BSD,
- plus other Unix systems that support the <code>dlfcn</code> standard).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- The path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to search for a Lua loader.
- <p>
- At start-up, Lua initializes this variable with
- the value of the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_PATH"><code>LUA_PATH</code></a> or
- with a default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>,
- if the environment variable is not defined.
- Any "<code>;;</code>" in the value of the environment variable
- is replaced by the default path.
- <p>
- A path is a sequence of <em>templates</em> separated by semicolons.
- For each template, <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> will change each interrogation
- mark in the template by <code>filename</code>,
- which is <code>modname</code> with each dot replaced by a
- "directory separator" (such as "<code>/</code>" in Unix);
- then it will try to load the resulting file name.
- So, for instance, if the Lua path is
- <pre>
- "./?.lua;./?.lc;/usr/local/?/init.lua"
- </pre><p>
- the search for a Lua loader for module <code>foo</code>
- will try to load the files
- <code>./foo.lua</code>, <code>./foo.lc</code>, and
- <code>/usr/local/foo/init.lua</code>, in that order.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.preload"><code>package.preload</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- A table to store loaders for specific modules
- (see <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.seeall"><code>package.seeall (module)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets a metatable for <code>module</code> with
- its <code>__index</code> field referring to the global environment,
- so that this module inherits values
- from the global environment.
- To be used as an option to function <a href="#pdf-module"><code>module</code></a>.
- <h2>5.4 - <a name="5.4">String Manipulation</a></h2>
- <p>
- This library provides generic functions for string manipulation,
- such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching.
- When indexing a string in Lua, the first character is at position 1
- (not at 0, as in C).
- Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards,
- from the end of the string.
- Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on.
- <p>
- The string library provides all its functions inside the table
- <a name="pdf-string"><code>string</code></a>.
- It also sets a metatable for strings
- where the <code>__index</code> field points to the <code>string</code> table.
- Therefore, you can use the string functions in object-oriented style.
- For instance, <code>string.byte(s, i)</code>
- can be written as <code>s:byte(i)</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.byte"><code>string.byte (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
- Returns the internal numerical codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>,
- <code>s[i+1]</code>, ···, <code>s[j]</code>.
- The default value for <code>i</code> is 1;
- the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>.
- <p>
- Note that numerical codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.char"><code>string.char (···)</code></a></h3>
- Receives zero or more integers.
- Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments,
- in which each character has the internal numerical code equal
- to its corresponding argument.
- <p>
- Note that numerical codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump (function)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a string containing a binary representation of the given function,
- so that a later <a href="#pdf-loadstring"><code>loadstring</code></a> on this string returns
- a copy of the function.
- <code>function</code> must be a Lua function without upvalues.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.find"><code>string.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h3>
- Looks for the first match of
- <code>pattern</code> in the string <code>s</code>.
- If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code>
- where this occurrence starts and ends;
- otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>.
- A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies
- where to start the search;
- its default value is 1 and may be negative.
- A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code>
- turns off the pattern matching facilities,
- so the function does a plain "find substring" operation,
- with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered "magic".
- Note that if <code>plain</code> is given, then <code>init</code> must be given as well.
- <p>
- If the pattern has captures,
- then in a successful match
- the captured values are also returned,
- after the two indices.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.format"><code>string.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h3>
- Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments
- following the description given in its first argument (which must be a string).
- The format string follows the same rules as the <code>printf</code> family of
- standard C functions.
- The only differences are that the options/modifiers
- <code>*</code>, <code>l</code>, <code>L</code>, <code>n</code>, <code>p</code>,
- and <code>h</code> are not supported
- and that there is an extra option, <code>q</code>.
- The <code>q</code> option formats a string in a form suitable to be safely read
- back by the Lua interpreter:
- the string is written between double quotes,
- and all double quotes, newlines, embedded zeros,
- and backslashes in the string
- are correctly escaped when written.
- For instance, the call
- <pre>
- string.format('%q', 'a string with "quotes" and \n new line')
- </pre><p>
- will produce the string:
- <pre>
- "a string with \"quotes\" and \
- new line"
- </pre>
- <p>
- The options <code>c</code>, <code>d</code>, <code>E</code>, <code>e</code>, <code>f</code>,
- <code>g</code>, <code>G</code>, <code>i</code>, <code>o</code>, <code>u</code>, <code>X</code>, and <code>x</code> all
- expect a number as argument,
- whereas <code>q</code> and <code>s</code> expect a string.
- <p>
- This function does not accept string values
- containing embedded zeros.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch (s, pattern)</code></a></h3>
- Returns an iterator function that,
- each time it is called,
- returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> over string <code>s</code>.
- <p>
- If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
- then the whole match is produced in each call.
- <p>
- As an example, the following loop
- <pre>
- s = "hello world from Lua"
- for w in string.gmatch(s, "%a+") do
- print(w)
- end
- </pre><p>
- will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>,
- printing one per line.
- The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the
- given string into a table:
- <pre>
- t = {}
- s = "from=world, to=Lua"
- for k, v in string.gmatch(s, "(%w+)=(%w+)") do
- t[k] = v
- end
- </pre>
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h3>
- Returns a copy of <code>s</code>
- in which all occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> have been
- replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>,
- which may be a string, a table, or a function.
- <code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value,
- the total number of substitutions made.
- <p>
- If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement.
- The character <code>%</code> works as an escape character:
- any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>%<em>n</em></code>,
- with <em>n</em> between 1 and 9,
- stands for the value of the <em>n</em>-th captured substring (see below).
- The sequence <code>%0</code> stands for the whole match.
- The sequence <code>%%</code> stands for a single <code>%</code>.
- <p>
- If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match,
- using the first capture as the key;
- if the pattern specifies no captures,
- then the whole match is used as the key.
- <p>
- If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a
- match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments,
- in order;
- if the pattern specifies no captures,
- then the whole match is passed as a sole argument.
- <p>
- If the value returned by the table query or by the function call
- is a string or a number,
- then it is used as the replacement string;
- otherwise, if it is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>,
- then there is no replacement
- (that is, the original match is kept in the string).
- <p>
- The optional last parameter <code>n</code> limits
- the maximum number of substitutions to occur.
- For instance, when <code>n</code> is 1 only the first occurrence of
- <code>pattern</code> is replaced.
- <p>
- Here are some examples:
- <pre>
- x = string.gsub("hello world", "(%w+)", "%1 %1")
- --> x="hello hello world world"
-
- x = string.gsub("hello world", "%w+", "%0 %0", 1)
- --> x="hello hello world"
-
- x = string.gsub("hello world from Lua", "(%w+)%s*(%w+)", "%2 %1")
- --> x="world hello Lua from"
-
- x = string.gsub("home = $HOME, user = $USER", "%$(%w+)", os.getenv)
- --> x="home = /home/roberto, user = roberto"
-
- x = string.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", "%$(.-)%$", function (s)
- return loadstring(s)()
- end)
- --> x="4+5 = 9"
-
- local t = {name="lua", version="5.1"}
- x = string.gsub("$name%-$version.tar.gz", "%$(%w+)", t)
- --> x="lua-5.1.tar.gz"
- </pre>
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.len"><code>string.len (s)</code></a></h3>
- Receives a string and returns its length.
- The empty string <code>""</code> has length 0.
- Embedded zeros are counted,
- so <code>"a\000bc\000"</code> has length 5.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.lower"><code>string.lower (s)</code></a></h3>
- Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
- uppercase letters changed to lowercase.
- All other characters are left unchanged.
- The definition of what an uppercase letter is depends on the current locale.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.match"><code>string.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h3>
- Looks for the first <em>match</em> of
- <code>pattern</code> in the string <code>s</code>.
- If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns
- the captures from the pattern;
- otherwise it returns <b>nil</b>.
- If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
- then the whole match is returned.
- A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies
- where to start the search;
- its default value is 1 and may be negative.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.rep"><code>string.rep (s, n)</code></a></h3>
- Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of
- the string <code>s</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.reverse"><code>string.reverse (s)</code></a></h3>
- Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.sub"><code>string.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h3>
- Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that
- starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>;
- <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> may be negative.
- If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1
- (which is the same as the string length).
- In particular,
- the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code>
- with length <code>j</code>,
- and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> returns a suffix of <code>s</code>
- with length <code>i</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.upper"><code>string.upper (s)</code></a></h3>
- Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
- lowercase letters changed to uppercase.
- All other characters are left unchanged.
- The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale.
- <h3>5.4.1 - <a name="5.4.1">Patterns</a></h3>
- <h4>Character Class:</h4><p>
- A <em>character class</em> is used to represent a set of characters.
- The following combinations are allowed in describing a character class:
- <ul>
- <li><b><em>x</em>:</b>
- (where <em>x</em> is not one of the <em>magic characters</em>
- <code>^$()%.[]*+-?</code>)
- represents the character <em>x</em> itself.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>.</code>:</b> (a dot) represents all characters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%a</code>:</b> represents all letters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%c</code>:</b> represents all control characters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%d</code>:</b> represents all digits.</li>
- <li><b><code>%l</code>:</b> represents all lowercase letters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%p</code>:</b> represents all punctuation characters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%s</code>:</b> represents all space characters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%u</code>:</b> represents all uppercase letters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%w</code>:</b> represents all alphanumeric characters.</li>
- <li><b><code>%x</code>:</b> represents all hexadecimal digits.</li>
- <li><b><code>%z</code>:</b> represents the character with representation 0.</li>
- <li><b><code>%<em>x</em></code>:</b> (where <em>x</em> is any non-alphanumeric character)
- represents the character <em>x</em>.
- This is the standard way to escape the magic characters.
- Any punctuation character (even the non magic)
- can be preceded by a '<code>%</code>'
- when used to represent itself in a pattern.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>[<em>set</em>]</code>:</b>
- represents the class which is the union of all
- characters in <em>set</em>.
- A range of characters may be specified by
- separating the end characters of the range with a '<code>-</code>'.
- All classes <code>%</code><em>x</em> described above may also be used as
- components in <em>set</em>.
- All other characters in <em>set</em> represent themselves.
- For example, <code>[%w_]</code> (or <code>[_%w]</code>)
- represents all alphanumeric characters plus the underscore,
- <code>[0-7]</code> represents the octal digits,
- and <code>[0-7%l%-]</code> represents the octal digits plus
- the lowercase letters plus the '<code>-</code>' character.
- <p>
- The interaction between ranges and classes is not defined.
- Therefore, patterns like <code>[%a-z]</code> or <code>[a-%%]</code>
- have no meaning.
- </li>
- <li><b><code>[^<em>set</em>]</code>:</b>
- represents the complement of <em>set</em>,
- where <em>set</em> is interpreted as above.
- </li>
- </ul><p>
- For all classes represented by single letters (<code>%a</code>, <code>%c</code>, etc.),
- the corresponding uppercase letter represents the complement of the class.
- For instance, <code>%S</code> represents all non-space characters.
- <p>
- The definitions of letter, space, and other character groups
- depend on the current locale.
- In particular, the class <code>[a-z]</code> may not be equivalent to <code>%l</code>.
- <h4>Pattern Item:</h4><p>
- A <em>pattern item</em> may be
- <ul>
- <li>
- a single character class,
- which matches any single character in the class;
- </li>
- <li>
- a single character class followed by '<code>*</code>',
- which matches 0 or more repetitions of characters in the class.
- These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
- </li>
- <li>
- a single character class followed by '<code>+</code>',
- which matches 1 or more repetitions of characters in the class.
- These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
- </li>
- <li>
- a single character class followed by '<code>-</code>',
- which also matches 0 or more repetitions of characters in the class.
- Unlike '<code>*</code>',
- these repetition items will always match the <em>shortest</em> possible sequence;
- </li>
- <li>
- a single character class followed by '<code>?</code>',
- which matches 0 or 1 occurrence of a character in the class;
- </li>
- <li>
- <code>%<em>n</em></code>, for <em>n</em> between 1 and 9;
- such item matches a substring equal to the <em>n</em>-th captured string
- (see below);
- </li>
- <li>
- <code>%b<em>xy</em></code>, where <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are two distinct characters;
- such item matches strings that start with <em>x</em>, end with <em>y</em>,
- and where the <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are <em>balanced</em>.
- This means that, if one reads the string from left to right,
- counting <em>+1</em> for an <em>x</em> and <em>-1</em> for a <em>y</em>,
- the ending <em>y</em> is the first <em>y</em> where the count reaches 0.
- For instance, the item <code>%b()</code> matches expressions with
- balanced parentheses.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h4>Pattern:</h4><p>
- A <em>pattern</em> is a sequence of pattern items.
- A '<code>^</code>' at the beginning of a pattern anchors the match at the
- beginning of the subject string.
- A '<code>$</code>' at the end of a pattern anchors the match at the
- end of the subject string.
- At other positions,
- '<code>^</code>' and '<code>$</code>' have no special meaning and represent themselves.
- <h4>Captures:</h4><p>
- A pattern may contain sub-patterns enclosed in parentheses;
- they describe <em>captures</em>.
- When a match succeeds, the substrings of the subject string
- that match captures are stored (<em>captured</em>) for future use.
- Captures are numbered according to their left parentheses.
- For instance, in the pattern <code>"(a*(.)%w(%s*))"</code>,
- the part of the string matching <code>"a*(.)%w(%s*)"</code> is
- stored as the first capture (and therefore has number 1);
- the character matching "<code>.</code>" is captured with number 2,
- and the part matching "<code>%s*</code>" has number 3.
- <p>
- As a special case, the empty capture <code>()</code> captures
- the current string position (a number).
- For instance, if we apply the pattern <code>"()aa()"</code> on the
- string <code>"flaaap"</code>, there will be two captures: 3 and 5.
- <p>
- A pattern cannot contain embedded zeros. Use <code>%z</code> instead.
- <h2>5.5 - <a name="5.5">Table Manipulation</a></h2><p>
- This library provides generic functions for table manipulation.
- It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-table"><code>table</code></a>.
- <p>
- Most functions in the table library assume that the table
- represents an array or a list.
- For these functions, when we talk about the "length" of a table
- we mean the result of the length operator.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.concat"><code>table.concat (table [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h3>
- Given an array where all elements are strings or numbers,
- returns <code>table[i]..sep..table[i+1] ··· sep..table[j]</code>.
- The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string,
- the default for <code>i</code> is 1,
- and the default for <code>j</code> is the length of the table.
- If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.insert"><code>table.insert (table, [pos,] value)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>table</code>,
- shifting up other elements to open space, if necessary.
- The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>n+1</code>,
- where <code>n</code> is the length of the table (see <a href="#2.5.5">§2.5.5</a>),
- so that a call <code>table.insert(t,x)</code> inserts <code>x</code> at the end
- of table <code>t</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.maxn"><code>table.maxn (table)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the largest positive numerical index of the given table,
- or zero if the table has no positive numerical indices.
- (To do its job this function does a linear traversal of
- the whole table.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.remove"><code>table.remove (table [, pos])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Removes from <code>table</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>,
- shifting down other elements to close the space, if necessary.
- Returns the value of the removed element.
- The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>n</code>,
- where <code>n</code> is the length of the table,
- so that a call <code>table.remove(t)</code> removes the last element
- of table <code>t</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.sort"><code>table.sort (table [, comp])</code></a></h3>
- Sorts table elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>,
- from <code>table[1]</code> to <code>table[n]</code>,
- where <code>n</code> is the length of the table.
- If <code>comp</code> is given,
- then it must be a function that receives two table elements,
- and returns true
- when the first is less than the second
- (so that <code>not comp(a[i+1],a[i])</code> will be true after the sort).
- If <code>comp</code> is not given,
- then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead.
- <p>
- The sort algorithm is not stable;
- that is, elements considered equal by the given order
- may have their relative positions changed by the sort.
- <h2>5.6 - <a name="5.6">Mathematical Functions</a></h2>
- <p>
- This library is an interface to the standard C math library.
- It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-math"><code>math</code></a>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.abs"><code>math.abs (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the absolute value of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.acos"><code>math.acos (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.asin"><code>math.asin (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.atan"><code>math.atan (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the arc tangent of <code>x</code> (in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.atan2"><code>math.atan2 (x, y)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the arc tangent of <code>x/y</code> (in radians),
- but uses the signs of both parameters to find the
- quadrant of the result.
- (It also handles correctly the case of <code>y</code> being zero.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ceil"><code>math.ceil (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the smallest integer larger than or equal to <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.cos"><code>math.cos (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.cosh"><code>math.cosh (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the hyperbolic cosine of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.deg"><code>math.deg (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the angle <code>x</code> (given in radians) in degrees.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.exp"><code>math.exp (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.floor"><code>math.floor (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the largest integer smaller than or equal to <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.fmod"><code>math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.frexp"><code>math.frexp (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns <code>m</code> and <code>e</code> such that <em>x = m2<sup>e</sup></em>,
- <code>e</code> is an integer and the absolute value of <code>m</code> is
- in the range <em>[0.5, 1)</em>
- (or zero when <code>x</code> is zero).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.huge"><code>math.huge</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- The value <code>HUGE_VAL</code>,
- a value larger than or equal to any other numerical value.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ldexp"><code>math.ldexp (m, e)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns <em>m2<sup>e</sup></em> (<code>e</code> should be an integer).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.log"><code>math.log (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.log10"><code>math.log10 (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the base-10 logarithm of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.max"><code>math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the maximum value among its arguments.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.min"><code>math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the minimum value among its arguments.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.modf"><code>math.modf (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns two numbers,
- the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.pi"><code>math.pi</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- The value of <em>pi</em>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.pow"><code>math.pow (x, y)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns <em>x<sup>y</sup></em>.
- (You can also use the expression <code>x^y</code> to compute this value.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.rad"><code>math.rad (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the angle <code>x</code> (given in degrees) in radians.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.random"><code>math.random ([m [, n]])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function is an interface to the simple
- pseudo-random generator function <code>rand</code> provided by ANSI C.
- (No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties.)
- <p>
- When called without arguments,
- returns a pseudo-random real number
- in the range <em>[0,1)</em>.
- When called with a number <code>m</code>,
- <code>math.random</code> returns
- a pseudo-random integer in the range <em>[1, m]</em>.
- When called with two numbers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>,
- <code>math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random
- integer in the range <em>[m, n]</em>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets <code>x</code> as the "seed"
- for the pseudo-random generator:
- equal seeds produce equal sequences of numbers.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sin"><code>math.sin (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sinh"><code>math.sinh (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the hyperbolic sine of <code>x</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sqrt"><code>math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the square root of <code>x</code>.
- (You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tan"><code>math.tan (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tanh"><code>math.tanh (x)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the hyperbolic tangent of <code>x</code>.
- <h2>5.7 - <a name="5.7">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2>
- <p>
- The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation.
- The first one uses implicit file descriptors;
- that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a
- default output file,
- and all input/output operations are over these default files.
- The second style uses explicit file descriptors.
- <p>
- When using implicit file descriptors,
- all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>.
- When using explicit file descriptors,
- the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file descriptor
- and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file descriptor.
- <p>
- The table <code>io</code> also provides
- three predefined file descriptors with their usual meanings from C:
- <a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>.
- <p>
- Unless otherwise stated,
- all I/O functions return <b>nil</b> on failure
- (plus an error message as a second result)
- and some value different from <b>nil</b> on success.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>.
- Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <code>file:flush</code> over the default output file.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode),
- and sets its handle as the default input file.
- When called with a file handle,
- it simply sets this file handle as the default input file.
- When called without parameters,
- it returns the current default input file.
- <p>
- In case of errors this function raises the error,
- instead of returning an error code.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Opens the given file name in read mode
- and returns an iterator function that,
- each time it is called,
- returns a new line from the file.
- Therefore, the construction
- <pre>
- for line in io.lines(filename) do <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- will iterate over all lines of the file.
- When the iterator function detects the end of file,
- it returns <b>nil</b> (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file.
- <p>
- The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent
- to <code>io.input():lines()</code>;
- that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file.
- In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function opens a file,
- in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>.
- It returns a new file handle,
- or, in case of errors, <b>nil</b> plus an error message.
- <p>
- The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following:
- <ul>
- <li><b>"r":</b> read mode (the default);</li>
- <li><b>"w":</b> write mode;</li>
- <li><b>"a":</b> append mode;</li>
- <li><b>"r+":</b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li>
- <li><b>"w+":</b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li>
- <li><b>"a+":</b> append update mode, previous data is preserved,
- writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li>
- </ul><p>
- The <code>mode</code> string may also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end,
- which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode.
- This string is exactly what is used in the
- standard C function <code>fopen</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Starts program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns
- a file handle that you can use to read data from this program
- (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default)
- or to write data to this program
- (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>).
- <p>
- This function is system dependent and is not available
- on all platforms.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <code>io.input():read</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a handle for a temporary file.
- This file is opened in update mode
- and it is automatically removed when the program ends.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle.
- Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle,
- <code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle,
- or <b>nil</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Equivalent to <code>io.output():write</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Closes <code>file</code>.
- Note that files are automatically closed when
- their handles are garbage collected,
- but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Saves any written data to <code>file</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns an iterator function that,
- each time it is called,
- returns a new line from the file.
- Therefore, the construction
- <pre>
- for line in file:lines() do <em>body</em> end
- </pre><p>
- will iterate over all lines of the file.
- (Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file
- when the loop ends.)
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Reads the file <code>file</code>,
- according to the given formats, which specify what to read.
- For each format,
- the function returns a string (or a number) with the characters read,
- or <b>nil</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format.
- When called without formats,
- it uses a default format that reads the entire next line
- (see below).
- <p>
- The available formats are
- <ul>
- <li><b>"*n":</b>
- reads a number;
- this is the only format that returns a number instead of a string.
- </li>
- <li><b>"*a":</b>
- reads the whole file, starting at the current position.
- On end of file, it returns the empty string.
- </li>
- <li><b>"*l":</b>
- reads the next line (skipping the end of line),
- returning <b>nil</b> on end of file.
- This is the default format.
- </li>
- <li><b><em>number</em>:</b>
- reads a string with up to this number of characters,
- returning <b>nil</b> on end of file.
- If number is zero,
- it reads nothing and returns an empty string,
- or <b>nil</b> on end of file.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence] [, offset])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets and gets the file position,
- measured from the beginning of the file,
- to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base
- specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows:
- <ul>
- <li><b>"set":</b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li>
- <li><b>"cur":</b> base is current position;</li>
- <li><b>"end":</b> base is end of file;</li>
- </ul><p>
- In case of success, function <code>seek</code> returns the final file position,
- measured in bytes from the beginning of the file.
- If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>,
- plus a string describing the error.
- <p>
- The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>,
- and for <code>offset</code> is 0.
- Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current
- file position, without changing it;
- the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the
- beginning of the file (and returns 0);
- and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the
- end of the file, and returns its size.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the buffering mode for an output file.
- There are three available modes:
- <ul>
- <li><b>"no":</b>
- no buffering; the result of any output operation appears immediately.
- </li>
- <li><b>"full":</b>
- full buffering; output operation is performed only
- when the buffer is full (or when you explicitly <code>flush</code> the file
- (see <a href="#pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush</code></a>)).
- </li>
- <li><b>"line":</b>
- line buffering; output is buffered until a newline is output
- or there is any input from some special files
- (such as a terminal device).
- </li>
- </ul><p>
- For the last two cases, <code>sizes</code>
- specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes.
- The default is an appropriate size.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Writes the value of each of its arguments to
- the <code>file</code>.
- The arguments must be strings or numbers.
- To write other values,
- use <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> or <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> before <code>write</code>.
- <h2>5.8 - <a name="5.8">Operating System Facilities</a></h2>
- <p>
- This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time
- used by the program.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a string or a table containing date and time,
- formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>.
- <p>
- If the <code>time</code> argument is present,
- this is the time to be formatted
- (see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value).
- Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time.
- <p>
- If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>',
- then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time.
- After this optional character,
- if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>",
- then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields:
- <code>year</code> (four digits), <code>month</code> (1--12), <code>day</code> (1--31),
- <code>hour</code> (0--23), <code>min</code> (0--59), <code>sec</code> (0--61),
- <code>wday</code> (weekday, Sunday is 1),
- <code>yday</code> (day of the year),
- and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean).
- <p>
- If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>",
- then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string,
- formatted according to the same rules as the C function <code>strftime</code>.
- <p>
- When called without arguments,
- <code>date</code> returns a reasonable date and time representation that depends on
- the host system and on the current locale
- (that is, <code>os.date()</code> is equivalent to <code>os.date("%c")</code>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the number of seconds from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code>.
- In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems,
- this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function is equivalent to the C function <code>system</code>.
- It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell.
- It returns a status code, which is system-dependent.
- If <code>command</code> is absent, then it returns nonzero if a shell is available
- and zero otherwise.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Calls the C function <code>exit</code>,
- with an optional <code>code</code>,
- to terminate the host program.
- The default value for <code>code</code> is the success code.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>,
- or <b>nil</b> if the variable is not defined.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Deletes the file or directory with the given name.
- Directories must be empty to be removed.
- If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>,
- plus a string describing the error.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Renames file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>.
- If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>,
- plus a string describing the error.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the current locale of the program.
- <code>locale</code> is a string specifying a locale;
- <code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change:
- <code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>,
- <code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>;
- the default category is <code>"all"</code>.
- The function returns the name of the new locale,
- or <b>nil</b> if the request cannot be honored.
- <p>
- When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument,
- this function only returns the name of the current locale
- for the given category.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the current time when called without arguments,
- or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table.
- This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>,
- and may have fields <code>hour</code>, <code>min</code>, <code>sec</code>, and <code>isdst</code>
- (for a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function).
- <p>
- The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system.
- In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, this number counts the number
- of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch").
- In other systems, the meaning is not specified,
- and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to
- <code>date</code> and <code>difftime</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a string with a file name that can
- be used for a temporary file.
- The file must be explicitly opened before its use
- and explicitly removed when no longer needed.
- <h2>5.9 - <a name="5.9">The Debug Library</a></h2>
- <p>
- This library provides
- the functionality of the debug interface to Lua programs.
- You should exert care when using this library.
- The functions provided here should be used exclusively for debugging
- and similar tasks, such as profiling.
- Please resist the temptation to use them as a
- usual programming tool:
- they can be very slow.
- Moreover, several of its functions
- violate some assumptions about Lua code
- (e.g., that variables local to a function
- cannot be accessed from outside or
- that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code)
- and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code.
- <p>
- All functions in this library are provided
- inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table.
- All functions that operate over a thread
- have an optional first argument which is the
- thread to operate over.
- The default is always the current thread.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Enters an interactive mode with the user,
- running each string that the user enters.
- Using simple commands and other debug facilities,
- the user can inspect global and local variables,
- change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on.
- A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function,
- so that the caller continues its execution.
- <p>
- Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested
- within any function, and so have no direct access to local variables.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getfenv"><code>debug.getfenv (o)</code></a></h3>
- Returns the environment of object <code>o</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values:
- the current hook function, the current hook mask,
- and the current hook count
- (as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] function [, what])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a table with information about a function.
- You can give the function directly,
- or you can give a number as the value of <code>function</code>,
- which means the function running at level <code>function</code> of the call stack
- of the given thread:
- level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself);
- level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code>;
- and so on.
- If <code>function</code> is a number larger than the number of active functions,
- then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>nil</b>.
- <p>
- The returned table may contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>,
- with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in.
- The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available,
- except the table of valid lines.
- If present,
- the option '<code>f</code>'
- adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself.
- If present,
- the option '<code>L</code>'
- adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of
- valid lines.
- <p>
- For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns
- a name of the current function, if a reasonable name can be found,
- and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code>
- returns a table with all available information
- about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] level, local)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function returns the name and the value of the local variable
- with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack.
- (The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on,
- until the last active local variable.)
- The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local
- variable with the given index,
- and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range.
- (You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.)
- <p>
- Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parentheses)
- represent internal variables
- (loop control variables, temporaries, and C function locals).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (object)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the metatable of the given <code>object</code>
- or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns the registry table (see <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (func, up)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue
- with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>func</code>.
- The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue with the given index.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setfenv"><code>debug.setfenv (object, table)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the environment of the given <code>object</code> to the given <code>table</code>.
- Returns <code>object</code>.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the given function as a hook.
- The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe
- when the hook will be called.
- The string mask may have the following characters,
- with the given meaning:
- <ul>
- <li><b><code>"c"</code>:</b> The hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li>
- <li><b><code>"r"</code>:</b> The hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li>
- <li><b><code>"l"</code>:</b> The hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li>
- </ul><p>
- With a <code>count</code> different from zero,
- the hook is called after every <code>count</code> instructions.
- <p>
- When called without arguments,
- <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook.
- <p>
- When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string
- describing the event that has triggered its call:
- <code>"call"</code>, <code>"return"</code> (or <code>"tail return"</code>),
- <code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>.
- For line events,
- the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter.
- Inside a hook,
- you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about
- the running function
- (level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function,
- and level 1 is the hook function),
- unless the event is <code>"tail return"</code>.
- In this case, Lua is only simulating the return,
- and a call to <code>getinfo</code> will return invalid data.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable
- with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack.
- The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local
- variable with the given index,
- and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range.
- (You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.)
- Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (object, table)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Sets the metatable for the given <code>object</code> to the given <code>table</code>
- (which can be <b>nil</b>).
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (func, up, value)</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue
- with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>func</code>.
- The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue
- with the given index.
- Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue.
- <p>
- <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message] [, level])</code></a></h3>
- <p>
- Returns a string with a traceback of the call stack.
- An optional <code>message</code> string is appended
- at the beginning of the traceback.
- An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level
- to start the traceback
- (default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>).
- <h1>6 - <a name="6">Lua Stand-alone</a></h1>
- <p>
- Although Lua has been designed as an extension language,
- to be embedded in a host C program,
- it is also frequently used as a stand-alone language.
- An interpreter for Lua as a stand-alone language,
- called simply <code>lua</code>,
- is provided with the standard distribution.
- The stand-alone interpreter includes
- all standard libraries, including the debug library.
- Its usage is:
- <pre>
- lua [options] [script [args]]
- </pre><p>
- The options are:
- <ul>
- <li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>:</b> executes string <em>stat</em>;</li>
- <li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>:</b> "requires" <em>mod</em>;</li>
- <li><b><code>-i</code>:</b> enters interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li>
- <li><b><code>-v</code>:</b> prints version information;</li>
- <li><b><code>--</code>:</b> stops handling options;</li>
- <li><b><code>-</code>:</b> executes <code>stdin</code> as a file and stops handling options.</li>
- </ul><p>
- After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>,
- passing to it the given <em>args</em> as string arguments.
- When called without arguments,
- <code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code>
- when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal,
- and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise.
- <p>
- Before running any argument,
- the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a>.
- If its format is <code>@<em>filename</em></code>,
- then <code>lua</code> executes the file.
- Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself.
- <p>
- All options are handled in order, except <code>-i</code>.
- For instance, an invocation like
- <pre>
- $ lua -e'a=1' -e 'print(a)' script.lua
- </pre><p>
- will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then print the value of <code>a</code> (which is '<code>1</code>'),
- and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments.
- (Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.)
- <p>
- Before starting to run the script,
- <code>lua</code> collects all arguments in the command line
- in a global table called <code>arg</code>.
- The script name is stored at index 0,
- the first argument after the script name goes to index 1,
- and so on.
- Any arguments before the script name
- (that is, the interpreter name plus the options)
- go to negative indices.
- For instance, in the call
- <pre>
- $ lua -la b.lua t1 t2
- </pre><p>
- the interpreter first runs the file <code>a.lua</code>,
- then creates a table
- <pre>
- arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la",
- [0] = "b.lua",
- [1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" }
- </pre><p>
- and finally runs the file <code>b.lua</code>.
- The script is called with <code>arg[1]</code>, <code>arg[2]</code>, ···
- as arguments;
- it can also access these arguments with the vararg expression '<code>...</code>'.
- <p>
- In interactive mode,
- if you write an incomplete statement,
- the interpreter waits for its completion
- by issuing a different prompt.
- <p>
- If the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT"><code>_PROMPT</code></a> contains a string,
- then its value is used as the prompt.
- Similarly, if the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT2"><code>_PROMPT2</code></a> contains a string,
- its value is used as the secondary prompt
- (issued during incomplete statements).
- Therefore, both prompts can be changed directly on the command line.
- For instance,
- <pre>
- $ lua -e"_PROMPT='myprompt> '" -i
- </pre><p>
- (the outer pair of quotes is for the shell,
- the inner pair is for Lua),
- or in any Lua programs by assigning to <code>_PROMPT</code>.
- Note the use of <code>-i</code> to enter interactive mode; otherwise,
- the program would just end silently right after the assignment to <code>_PROMPT</code>.
- <p>
- To allow the use of Lua as a
- script interpreter in Unix systems,
- the stand-alone interpreter skips
- the first line of a chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>.
- Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs
- by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form,
- as in
- <pre>
- #!/usr/local/bin/lua
- </pre><p>
- (Of course,
- the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine.
- If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>,
- then
- <pre>
- #!/usr/bin/env lua
- </pre><p>
- is a more portable solution.)
- <h1>7 - <a name="7">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1>
- <p>
- Here we list the incompatibilities that you may found when moving a program
- from Lua 5.0 to Lua 5.1.
- You can avoid most of the incompatibilities compiling Lua with
- appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>).
- However,
- all these compatibility options will be removed in the next version of Lua.
- <h2>7.1 - <a name="7.1">Changes in the Language</a></h2>
- <ul>
- <li>
- The vararg system changed from the pseudo-argument <code>arg</code> with a
- table with the extra arguments to the vararg expression.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_VARARG</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- <li>
- There was a subtle change in the scope of the implicit
- variables of the <b>for</b> statement and for the <b>repeat</b> statement.
- </li>
- <li>
- The long string/long comment syntax (<code>[[<em>string</em>]]</code>)
- does not allow nesting.
- You can use the new syntax (<code>[=[<em>string</em>]=]</code>) in these cases.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_LSTR</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h2>7.2 - <a name="7.2">Changes in the Libraries</a></h2>
- <ul>
- <li>
- Function <code>string.gfind</code> was renamed <a href="#pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch</code></a>.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_GFIND</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- <li>
- When <a href="#pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub</code></a> is called with a function as its
- third argument,
- whenever this function returns <b>nil</b> or <b>false</b> the
- replacement string is the whole match,
- instead of the empty string.
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>table.setn</code> was deprecated.
- Function <code>table.getn</code> corresponds
- to the new length operator (<code>#</code>);
- use the operator instead of the function.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_GETN</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>loadlib</code> was renamed <a href="#pdf-package.loadlib"><code>package.loadlib</code></a>.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_LOADLIB</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>math.mod</code> was renamed <a href="#pdf-math.fmod"><code>math.fmod</code></a>.
- (See compile-time option <code>LUA_COMPAT_MOD</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
- </li>
- <li>
- Functions <code>table.foreach</code> and <code>table.foreachi</code> are deprecated.
- You can use a for loop with <code>pairs</code> or <code>ipairs</code> instead.
- </li>
- <li>
- There were substantial changes in function <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> due to
- the new module system.
- However, the new behavior is mostly compatible with the old,
- but <code>require</code> gets the path from <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> instead
- of from <code>LUA_PATH</code>.
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> has different arguments.
- Function <code>gcinfo</code> is deprecated;
- use <code>collectgarbage("count")</code> instead.
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h2>7.3 - <a name="7.3">Changes in the API</a></h2>
- <ul>
- <li>
- The <code>luaopen_*</code> functions (to open libraries)
- cannot be called directly,
- like a regular C function.
- They must be called through Lua,
- like a Lua function.
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>lua_open</code> was replaced by <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a> to
- allow the user to set a memory-allocation function.
- You can use <a href="#luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a> from the standard library to
- create a state with a standard allocation function
- (based on <code>realloc</code>).
- </li>
- <li>
- Functions <code>luaL_getn</code> and <code>luaL_setn</code>
- (from the auxiliary library) are deprecated.
- Use <a href="#lua_objlen"><code>lua_objlen</code></a> instead of <code>luaL_getn</code>
- and nothing instead of <code>luaL_setn</code>.
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>luaL_openlib</code> was replaced by <a href="#luaL_register"><code>luaL_register</code></a>.
- </li>
- <li>
- Function <code>luaL_checkudata</code> now throws an error when the given value
- is not a userdata of the expected type.
- (In Lua 5.0 it returned <code>NULL</code>.)
- </li>
- </ul>
- <h1>8 - <a name="8">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1>
- <p>
- Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF.
- (It does not describe operator precedences.)
- <pre>
- chunk ::= {stat [`<b>;</b>´]} [laststat [`<b>;</b>´]]
- block ::= chunk
- stat ::= varlist1 `<b>=</b>´ explist1 |
- functioncall |
- <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
- <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
- <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
- <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> |
- <b>for</b> Name `<b>=</b>´ exp `<b>,</b>´ exp [`<b>,</b>´ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
- <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist1 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
- <b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
- <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
- <b>local</b> namelist [`<b>=</b>´ explist1]
- laststat ::= <b>return</b> [explist1] | <b>break</b>
- funcname ::= Name {`<b>.</b>´ Name} [`<b>:</b>´ Name]
- varlist1 ::= var {`<b>,</b>´ var}
- var ::= Name | prefixexp `<b>[</b>´ exp `<b>]</b>´ | prefixexp `<b>.</b>´ Name
- namelist ::= Name {`<b>,</b>´ Name}
- explist1 ::= {exp `<b>,</b>´} exp
- exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Number | String | `<b>...</b>´ | function |
- prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp
- prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | `<b>(</b>´ exp `<b>)</b>´
- functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp `<b>:</b>´ Name args
- args ::= `<b>(</b>´ [explist1] `<b>)</b>´ | tableconstructor | String
- function ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
- funcbody ::= `<b>(</b>´ [parlist1] `<b>)</b>´ block <b>end</b>
- parlist1 ::= namelist [`<b>,</b>´ `<b>...</b>´] | `<b>...</b>´
- tableconstructor ::= `<b>{</b>´ [fieldlist] `<b>}</b>´
- fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
- field ::= `<b>[</b>´ exp `<b>]</b>´ `<b>=</b>´ exp | Name `<b>=</b>´ exp | exp
- fieldsep ::= `<b>,</b>´ | `<b>;</b>´
- binop ::= `<b>+</b>´ | `<b>-</b>´ | `<b>*</b>´ | `<b>/</b>´ | `<b>^</b>´ | `<b>%</b>´ | `<b>..</b>´ |
- `<b><</b>´ | `<b><=</b>´ | `<b>></b>´ | `<b>>=</b>´ | `<b>==</b>´ | `<b>~=</b>´ |
- <b>and</b> | <b>or</b>
- unop ::= `<b>-</b>´ | <b>not</b> | `<b>#</b>´
- </pre>
- <p>
- <HR>
- <SMALL>
- Last update:
- Tue Oct 3 21:27:28 BRT 2006
- </SMALL>
- <!--
- Last change: minor edit
- -->
- </body></html>
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